A Critical Analysis of how events contribute to destination community development.

Event Management, Vol. 15, pp. 105–119 1525-9951/11 $60.00 + .00 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.3727/152599511X13082349958316 Copyright  2011 Cognizant Comm. Corp. www.cognizantcommunication.com

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS: VEHICLES AND CATALYSTS

FOR SOCIAL CAPITAL IN DIVIDED SOCIETIES

NICO SCHULENKORF, ALANA THOMSON, and KATIE SCHLENKER

School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), Sydney, Australia

Sport events are believed to promote dialogue, integration, and peaceful understanding among disparate groups, even when other forms of negotiation have not been successful. However, the social outcomes from sport events are largely anecdotal and there is a need to empirically examine the active engagement of groups with “others” in participatory sport event projects. This article investigates the potential of an intercommunity sport event in contributing to intergroup develop- ment and social capital building in the ethnically divided Sri Lanka. It follows an interpretive mode of inquiry where findings are derived from the analysis of 35 in-depth interviews with Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim, and international event stakeholders. By providing evidence of the vary- ing sociocultural experiences at the event, this article discusses the event’s impact on intergroup relations and its influence on the stock of social capital available to communities. Findings can assist governments, policy makers, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in advancing poli- cies and practical measures that build on events as vehicles and catalysts for enhanced intergroup relations and the creation of social capital.

Key words: Sport event experiences; Community participation; Intergroup relations; Social capital; Strategic management

Introduction support “their” squad. At the 2006 Football World Cup, for example, tens of thousands of Australian and Japanese supporters traveled for up to 30People from all over the world love to play,

attend, watch, listen to, talk about, experience, and hours to cheer on their teams in Germany. Apart from the usual rivalries, it was reported that fanseven feel sport at any level of performance. Local

community sport events are attended by friends of different nations celebrated together, before, during, and after the matches (Ohmann, Jones, &and family week after week, and national and in-

ternational sporting competitions allow fans to fol- Wilkes, 2006; Smith-Spark, 2006). For such rea- sons, sport has been described as a language thatlow sport teams all around the globe to loyally

Address correspondence to Dr. Nico Schulenkorf, School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), Sydney, Australia, P.O. Box 222, Lindfield 2070, NSW, Australia. Tel: +61 295145368; Fax: +61 295145195; E-mail: nico.schulenk- orf@uts.edu.au

105

106 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

all people in the world speak and understand and, ples and nations (Müller & Gerling, 2006). The universal appeal of sports has also been thought toin turn, has the ability to combine and unite groups

emotionally (Dyreson, 2003). play a role in the construction, reproduction, and/ or consolidation of social identities in politically,Better publicized sport events, such as World

Cups or the Olympic Games, have demonstrated socially, or ethnically divided societies (Schulen- korf, 2010b; Sugden, 2006). For such reasons,this social power of sport. For example, North and

South Korea marching under one flag at the 2000 governments all over the world have used sport events to capitalize on the pride and unity oftenSydney Olympics, or Cathy Freeman’s symbolic

lighting of the Olympic torch, represent diverse generated, to create or advance a shared sense of national purpose, pride, and identity (Jarvie, 2003;communities standing and feeling together as one.

However, the social outcomes from such symbolic Nauright, 1997; Vinoker, 1988). Anecdotal discussions highlight the intercon-demonstrations are largely anecdotal. It is argued

that for disparate communities to experience last- nection between politics and sport events in re- gards to the building of nationalism and nationaling benefits from sport events there is the need

to move beyond symbolism and anecdotes. Active consciousness; the creation of national identity and patriotism; and the process of reconciliationparticipation with “others” is needed to experience

firsthand the power of sport and sport events to (Jarvie, 2003; Maguire, 2002). The building of na- tionalism, for example, is illustrated by the 1936contribute to social development (Coalter, 2007;

Sugden, 2006). This article provides an empirical Nazi-Olympics in Berlin, which the Hitler regime intended to use as a medium to showcase theinvestigation of an intercommunity sport event as

a strategic tool for reducing social barriers and Arian race and the Germanic nations as the domi- nant world power. The use of sport events in creat-creating social capital within a divided society.

The findings of this research will assist govern- ing national identity and patriotism is reflected in the 1980s policy of the African National Congressments, policy makers, and nongovernmental orga-

nizations (NGOs) in advancing policies and practi- (ANC) in South Africa, which was “One Can Not Play Normal Sport in an Abnormal Society.”cal measures that build on sport events as vehicles

and catalysts for enhanced intergroup relations and When the apartheid regime had finally come to an end, President Mandela argued that sport hadsocial capital building. become part of the new glue that held the nation together (Jarvie, 2003; Jarvie & Reid, 1999). Later,Literature Review in 1995, Mandela wore a Springbok cap and shirt

The literature underpinning this study combines following the country’s victory in the Rugby

two interrelated areas. First, the social impacts and World Cup, and symbolically demonstrated the

outcomes of sport events are presented, which in- need for the new “Rainbow Nation” to reconcile

cludes both the potential of sport events and/or by working together and respecting each other

projects to act as a positive force for intercom- (Maguire, 2002).

munity development and the potential of sport These anecdotes suggest that sport events are

events to negatively impact on intergroup rela- able to promote dialogue, integration, and peaceful

tions. Second, the link between sport event experi- understanding among groups. However, empirical

ences, active participation, and social capital is evidence that confirms or disproves the power of

discussed. The two areas of literature provide the intercommunity sport events in overcoming social

theoretical background to the empirical investiga- and cultural divides, and therefore impacting on

tion conducted for this study. the stock of social capital within and between communities, remains scarce (Chalip, 2006; Kellett,

Social Impacts and Outcomes of Sport Events Hede, & Chalip, 2008). The belief that sport events can contribute to social development by creatingIn 1896, Baron Pierre de Coubertin established

the Modern Olympics with the belief that sport social capital and social change stems largely from evaluations of ongoing sport programs in the de-events brought people together, and in doing so

contributed to a better understanding between peo- veloping world. Here, different “melting pot” de-

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 107

velopment programs have proven to be successful Giulianotti, 2001; Hall, Selwood, & McKewon, 1995; Higham, 1999; Sack & Suster, 2000). Suchin promoting longer term cross-cultural under-

standing and “normalizing” in deeply divided so- antisocial behavior may lead to a reiteration or re- emergence of historical and prejudicial stereotypescieties such as: Israel (Stidder & Haasner, 2007;

Sugden, 2006); Bosnia/Herzegovina (Gasser & (Dimeo & Kay, 2004), which are capable of wors- ening already strained intergroup relations (Di-Levinsen, 2004, 2006); Sierra Leone (Lea-Howarth,

2006); Liberia (Armstrong, 2004); South Africa meo, 2001; Hay, 2001). Thomas and Dyall (1999) even suggest that sport performances are often in-(Guelke & Sugden, 2000; Höglund & Sundberg,

2008); and Northern Ireland (Bairner & Darby, terpreted by those who watch or participate in them, in ways that dramatize ongoing cultural and2000; Sugden, 1991).

In these examples it has been shown that regu- political issues. For these reasons, professional sport events arelarly scheduled sport programs can contribute to

people regaining, step by step, a sense of security often considered an ineffective means for estab- lishing or rebuilding any lasting sense of commu-and confidence when approaching new people,

groups, and even politically opposed communities. nity. The potential for negative outcomes may un- Active involvement and participation in sports can intentionally serve as a platform for worsening further lead to skill development, cultural learning, intergroup relations and contribute to a divide be- and overall community empowerment (Lawson, tween sportspeople, residents, and interest groups 2005; Skinner, Zakus, & Cowell, 2008). However, (Hargreaves, 2000; Ingham & McDonald, 2003; in contrast to sport programs, which are regularly Smith & Ingham, 2003; Thomson, Darcy, & Pearce, scheduled activities that take place over a certain 2010). length of time, sport events are seen as short-term intensive activities lasting only a few days. The Sport Event Experiences, Active Participation, contribution of sport events to intergroup develop- and Social Capital Building ment and their role in contributing to social capital

In order to utilize sport events as vehicles andstill needs to be examined. catalysts for intergroup development and socialContrary to the social benefits documented in capital building, community participation must un-the literature, there is a body of literature that derpin the event strategies and management (At-highlights the potential negative impacts of sport kinson, 1991; Brown, Brown, Jackson, Sellers, &programs and events, putting forth the argument Manuel, 2003; Schulenkorf, 2009, 2010a; Unitedthat such initiatives also have the capacity to Nations, 2006). The United Nations (cited in Mid-worsen intergroup relations (Armstrong & Giulia- gley, 1986) defines community participation asnotti, 2001; Dimeo, 2001; Higham, 1999; Sack & “the creation of opportunities to enable all mem-Suster, 2000). Negative outcomes arise as a result bers of a community and the larger society to ac-of several inherent characteristics of sport that re- tively contribute to and influence the developmentflect the dynamics of broader society, which need process and to share equitably in the fruits of de-to be considered by organizers and communities velopment” (p. 24). Fundamental to the ideal ofduring the planning and management of intercom- community participation is an emphasis on devel-munity sport events (Hargreaves, 2000). opment, which is initiated within communities,First, it is suggested that the competitive nature taking a bottom-up approach and therefore incor-and rivalry at sport events, with an emphasis on porating a relevance to those affected (Getz &winners and losers (Hargreaves, 2000; Torkildsen, Frisby, 1988; Kelly, 2002; Quinn, 1999; Reid,2000), may lead to negative social impacts such 2006). This approach has a greater likelihood ofas hooliganism, vandalism, or stampedes (Bishop providing an innate sense of cultural relevance,& Jaworski, 2003; Griggs, 2004; Sack & Suster, self-determination, sense of belonging for the par-2000; Soutar & McLeod, 1993). Second, several ticipants, and better achievement of outcomes (At-authors have identified an increase in antisocial kinson, 1991; Thomson et al., 2010).behavior, criminal activity, violence, and arrests

during the period of sport events (Armstrong & Recently, research has suggested that sport

108 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

events and sport development projects can have an now, in the expectation that you (or perhaps some- one else) will return the favor” (p. 20). Reciprocalimpact on the stock of social capital available to

communities (Misener & Mason, 2006; Nicholson acts facilitate access to resources at an individual and collective level, and within a social network.& Hoye, 2008; Skinner et al., 2008). Social capital

is defined by Baum and his colleagues (cited in For instance, at a sport event people can gain ac- cess to physical resources by borrowing from eachAustralian Bureau of Statistics, 2002) as “the

building of healthy communities through collec- other or receiving donated equipment. While participation in sports has long been con-tive, mutually beneficial interactions and accom-

plishments, particularly those demonstrated through sidered to build character, teach values, encourage healthy competition, and promote intergroup friend-social and civic participation” (p. 3). The central

elements for social capital are trust, networks, and ship, there is little empirical evidence of intercom- munity sport events and their wider social rolereciprocity (Putnam, 1993, 2000, 2003), which are

considered as “the oil that lubricates social pro- (Chalip, 2006). Therefore, this study answers a call for evidence on the effectiveness of sportcesses” aimed at positive community development

(Kilpatrick, 1999, p. 123). events in creating social experiences and facilitat- ing the development of social capital. The studyTrust is described as “the expectation that

arises within a community of regular, honest and empirically examines participation at an intercom- munity sport event and whether this can contributecooperative behavior, based on commonly shared

norms, on the part of other members of that com- to breaking down social barriers between disparate groups. Using Sri Lanka as a case study, the socialmunity” (Fukuyama, 1995, p. 26). In intergroup

settings, particularly when cultural elements and and cultural experiences of various stakeholders in the 1st International Run for Peace are analyzeddiffering norms and values are involved, trust

serves as the foundation for meaningful communi- and discussed. cation and understanding. According to Putnam (1993, 2000, 2003), three types of trust are impor- Method tant for the creation of social capital: personalized

Context and Setting trust, generalized trust, and institutionalized trust. Personalized trust describes experiences on an in- Intergroup relations within multiethnic Sri

Lanka have been fraught with difficulties for sev-dividual level; this is referred to as “bonding” with well-known people. Generalized trust expands to eral decades. The country’s Tamil minority has

been anxious with the country’s unitary form ofother groups at an event and is referred to as the “bridging” element of social capital. Institutional- government, believing that the Sinhalese majority

would abuse Tamil rights (Dunung, 1995). In theized trust links to the confidence in external par- ties involved in the organizing of sport events, 1970s the Tamils began to rebel for their religious

and cultural identity and started to seek an inde-which is referred to as “linking” social capital (Woolcock, 2001). pendent state Tamil Eelam by force. Under the

leadership of Velupillai Prabhakaran the Libera-Once trust is built, social networks can be cre- ated. Networks are the voluntary interlocking of tion Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Ti-

gers) were formed to fight for self-sovereignty inrelationships between individuals and groups, and include newly established or fostered contacts, the northeastern regions of Sri Lanka, which are

considered the areas of traditional Tamil settle-ties, group attachment, or friendship circles. Ac- cording to Stone (2001), networks are the “struc- ment. Seeing themselves as the acting representa-

tive of the Tamil people, the LTTE’s violent de-tural” elements of social capital. Through partici- pation at sport events, people have the opportunity mands culminated in a civil war that lasted from

1983 to 2002 and resulted in over 70,000 deathsto build networks on both the personal and profes- sional levels. From within these networks a pro- (Bilger, 2006). In northeastern Sri Lanka, the

LTTE managed to establish a de facto state withcess of exchange occurs; those interactions are re- ferred to as reciprocity (Stone, 2001). Putnam its own military, police, schools, laws, and courts.

In 2002, the Government of Sri Lanka and the(2000) explains the concept as “I’ll do this for you

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 109

LTTE finally agreed to commit to a peace process. Kandy. The IR4P took an international focus. While the local communities were in charge of the designWhile the LTTE withdrew from active peace talks

after six rounds in April 2003, a cease-fire agree- and the marketing of the event to their respective groups, A.G.S.E.P. arranged official approval andment remained in place until January 2008, when

Sri Lanka returned to open civil war. Fourteen support from the Government and Sport Councils, provided the transport for participants from ruralmonths later, after considerable military victories

and the regaining of valuable territory from the areas, and organized event experts and social workers for conducting and supervising the event.LTTE in northeastern Sri Lanka, the Government

was able to announce victory over the Tamil Ti- Security personnel and medical staff from the lo- cal community hospital were also volunteeringgers and an end to the civil war in May 2009.

Against the background of a deeply divided so- and present on site. The IR4P provided a day of celebration, specta-ciety, research for this study was conducted in

western Sri Lanka from January until April 2007. cle, and color for 800 national and international participants and several thousand spectators. TheAt that point in time, the LTTE controlled 15% of

the island and claimed another 20% as their tradi- IR4P featured three categories. First, a competitive 21-kilometer half-marathon was staged for bothtional homeland. Intergroup relations among Sri

Lanka’s ethnic groups were deeply shattered and male and female athletes. Second, a 10-kilometer “minimarathon” was offered to participants andopportunities for positive intergroup contact were

scarce. sports groups who wanted to get some physical activity. Third, a symbolic “peace move” of 5 ki- lometers was also offered to encourage participa-The Event tion by people of different fitness levels and age

In an attempt to contribute to positive contact, groups, who wanted to support the event theme of appeasement, and reconciliation between ethnic peace. groups on a community level, the NGO Asian Ger- One of the unique features of this sport event man Sports Exchange Program (A.G.S.E.P.) has was the participation and spectating across age, been organizing intercommunity sport events un- gender, social class, and ethnic/national background. der a “Games for Peace” theme since 2002. These The run started at Colombo’s Independence sport events bring Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim, and Square and passed through three city districts of international sportspeople together in a leisure en- very different socioeconomic status: the upper- vironment free of sociopolitical constraints, and class Colombo 7 quarter; the slums of Maradana; therefore conducive to building social capital. and the middle-class Kolpitiya district. The run With the help of the local communities and inter- finished at the Colombo Race Course Grounds, national volunteers, A.G.S.E.P.’s vision is “to con- where a multicultural music festival was con- tribute to the reestablishment of peace in Sri ducted as part of the after-event celebrations. In an Lanka,” with a mission to “popularize social val- awards ceremony, groups were awarded for their ues such as respect, courage, and commitment valued participation, performance, social contribu- through sport events” (A.G.S.E.P. website, 2005). tion, and personal commitment, rather than identi-

This study focuses on the social and cultural fying winners and losers. This was in line with event experiences resulting from people’s involve- A.G.S.E.P’s “no-one loses” philosophy, which put ment in the 1st International Run for Peace a focus on the social and integrative character of (IR4P), held on October 1, 2006 in Sri Lanka’s the sport event with its supporting cultural perfor- capital Colombo. The IR4P followed an earlier mances, rather than on the actual result of the A.G.S.E.P. initiative, the National Run for Peace sport events. (NR4P), staged in 2004. The NR4P focused at a domestic level, bringing together the different eth-

Research Design nic communities from 12 Sri Lankan districts to run from their home towns to reach the Bogam- The interpretive paradigm that underpins this

study acknowledges that research questions andbara stadium in the centrally located city of

110 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

data emerge through a process of induction (Crotty, participants’ English proficiency did not allow ad- equate responses, they were assisted by a local1998; Glesne, 1999; Neuman, 2003). That is, the

researchers construct and reconstruct meaning in Sinhala- and Tamil-speaking interpreter. To guar- antee a confidential yet personal presentation ofrelation to the evolving research questions and the

experiences of the participants related to the phe- findings, research participants were given pseudo- nyms.nomenon under inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).

According to Myers (1997), interpretive studies The computer software used to support the data analysis was NVivo 7, which assisted the re-aim to understand the context of a phenomenon

through the meanings that people assign to it. searchers in storing, integrating, indexing, and coding the large amount of information collected.Therefore, the significant elements of the partici-

pant’s experiences, the study findings, inform the Within NVivo, the processes of open and axial coding (see Willis, 2006) are reflected in the cre-analysis process through coding, themes, and pat-

tern development. ation of free and tree nodes. While free nodes can be described as containers for storing data that “doSemistructured in-depth interviews were used

to find out in detail about people’s sport event ex- not assume relationships with other concepts” (Beazley & Richards, 2000, p. 25), tree nodes areperiences. This method was chosen because, ac-

cording to Hoepfl (1997), in-depth interviews are those that allow for hierarchical organization into themes and subthemes. Tree nodes are thereforethe most promising method to find out the “real”

about contemporary cases and phenomena. In line useful for axial coding and the reorganization of existing free nodes. During the data analysis pro-with the in-depth approach to research, purposeful

sampling was applied, as it allows researchers to cess both free nodes and tree nodes were used. This resulted in a better understanding of relation-choose different participants who suit their re-

search subject (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Mini- ships of the data and structures of emerging argu- ments, and allowed for the coding and reconceptu-chiello, Aroni, Timewell, & Alexander, 1995;

Neuman, 2003). Thus, the integration of voices alizing of data into seven themes of experience. from all groups that were impacted by sport events could be ensured, which contributed to a holistic Findings and realistic picture of the case.

The sociocultural experiences of participants in Key individuals from the main sport event

the IR4P were analyzed using an inductive ap- stakeholder groups and from the participating

proach, from which emerged seven distinct but in- communities were identified for the initial round

terrelated themes. Five themes were considered to of interviews. These included community members,

contribute to positive social capital building and a event organizers, participants, spectators, sponsors,

reduction of ethnic barriers. Two themes were media, and government representatives. Further

found to limit opportunities for social capital interview respondents were accessed through the

building, and therefore impact negatively on inter- use of snowball sampling. The combination of

personal and intergroup relations (see Table 2). community representatives previously known by

The seven identified themes will be presented A.G.S.E.P. and the snowballing method resulted

next, drawing on representative comments from in the lead researcher getting access to a wide

interview respondents. spectrum of interviewees, ranging from local fish- ermen to high profile Members of Parliament. In

Positive Sociocultural Experiences total, 35 semistructured interviews were conducted between January and April 2007 (see Table 1). Socializing. The category of Socializing in-

cludes elements of fun and entertainment; inclu-They ran for between 35 and 120 minutes each and included questions on the sociocultural im- sive interaction and shared experiences; and the

pride of having actively and creatively contributedpacts experienced and/or witnessed at the IR4P event; and how the event impacted on people’s to development efforts.

Participation in the IR4P resulted in fun andsocial identities, their sense of belonging, and overall intergroup relations. In cases where the entertainment for sportspeople, spectators, event

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 111

Table 1 Overview of Interview Respondents

Event Stakeholder Type No. Ethnic Background

Event organizers 5 3 European, 1 Sinhalese, 1 Tamil Volunteers 4 3 European, 1 Muslim Event participants 4 3 Sinhalese, 1 European Event epectators 4 2 European, 1 Sinhalese, 1 Tamil Sinhalese community 5 5 Sinhalese Tamil community 2 2 Tamil Muslim community 2 2 Muslim Government ministries 2 2 Sinhalese LTTE official 1 1 Tamil Sport associations 2 2 Sinhalese Aid organization 1 1 Sinhalese Media 2 1 Sinhalese, 1 Muslim Sponsor 1 1 Sinhalese Total 35 17 Sinhalese, 5 Tamil, 4 Muslim, 9 European

organizers, and the local communities. Chulo, a integrative cooperation and joint participation at the inter-community sport events as a valuable so-local aid worker, reported that during the IR4P ciocultural impact which led to positive long-termpeople along the course were “supporting, cheer- memories. He said: “You see even now—half aing, celebrating all the time.” The open and wel- year after the event—people still wear their shirtscoming character of the sport event led to socializ- with ’Run for Peace.’ So it is really something thating opportunities for spectators and participants they kept in their hearts and minds for a long time,alike. An example of the relaxed social atmo- because they still like to wear it and remember thesphere among spectators and athletes was the day.” Shawn’s example shows that even monthsspontaneous celebration of “The Mexican Wave” after the IR4P people were proud of their activeat the end of the event. Kevin, a former staff mem- contribution to the intercommunity sport event andber of the Ministry of Sports, praised this sym- enjoyed remembering the peace run as a joint cele-bolic gesture, stating that “when they finished the bration of all Sri Lankan communities.race and started the wave, it was a good ceremony

for the people.” Trust. The category of Trust includes the ele- ments of intercommunity trust and confidence,Shawn, a participant in the IR4P, described the

Table 2 Sociocultural Experiences Resulting From the IR4P Sport Event

Theme Social Experiences

Socializing Fun and entertainment; Inclusive interaction; Shared experiences; Active contribution to devel- opment

Trust Rise in intercommunity confidence and belief; Increase in comfort levels; Increase in perceived safety

Reciprocity and solidarity Intergroup cooperation; Physical support; Emotional support

Contact and networks Individual friendships (bonding); Group contacts and networking (bridging); Business relation- ships (linking)

Learning and development Management skills; Sport techniques; Intercultural learning and expansion of perspectives

Attitudes Differences in affection and enthusiasm; Differences in activity and engagement; Antisocial behavior

Management tensions Communication issues; Difficulty with power relations; Personal and group frustration

112 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

increase in perceived safety, and increase in inter- of a trust. I don’t say it’s 100%. . . . That’s why I said it’s more or less a confidence building or trustgroup comfort levels. Comments made by respon-

dents revealed that for the creation of trust, three building exercise.” elements were of central importance. First, the

Reciprocity and Solidarity. The category of good reputation of the island-wide known event

Reciprocity and Solidarity includes elements of organizer A.G.S.E.P.; second, symbolic factors

helpful intergroup cooperation, and physical as such as themes and logos; and third, the support-

well as emotional support at the sport events. Feel- ive nature of key stakeholders.

ings of intergroup camaraderie existed around the The acceptance and awareness of A.G.S.E.P.

sport event, which became obvious through the by local communities has constantly improved

many small gestures and signs of goodwill. Orga- over the years, and its good reputation as an inter-

nizer Didi highlighted this through the comment: national yet locally grounded NGO in Sri Lanka has grown. Respondents perceived A.G.S.E.P. as

The participants who came and took part in thean event organizer that can be trusted. Kappa, for IR4P, they came from drastically different ethnic

example, stated that “with A.G.S.E.P. as a sup- backgrounds. . . . We noticed that the support for porter or expert, people expect a better organized example towards the poorer participants was

shown by the more affluent, richer participants inand better managed event of great quality. Simply the sense that they have also supported them withbecause that name is on the board.” Another rea- materials, with T-shirts, sometimes also withson for A.G.S.E.P.’s acceptance by all communi- shoes. Because we had runners that didn’t even

ties is their inclusive sport event campaign “Games have shoes! for Peace” and their politically neutral logo. Ranil stated that A.G.S.E.P. decided to purposely use

While the generous sharing of sport equipment slogans that focus solely on the impartial sport

is an example of reciprocal support on the physical factor in intergroup relations:

level, people also witnessed support on the emo- tional level. Participant Anu recalled that encour-

Our logo says “Connecting Sportspeople,” which agement was given to the athletes by other partici-is a very neutral statement. It does not give any pants or spectators throughout the race, as “peopleideas or links towards any political affiliation or came out of their houses and shouted: ‘Ah, run,philosophical direction, we are just connecting

sportspeople. There are a boy and a girl, another you can do it!’ And at working places they boy and a girl, and we try to put a ball in between stopped their work and shouted, cheering up, run- them and try to make people interact through the

ning behind us with water . . . so they were verymedium of sport. And that’s it. helpful.”

Other respondents highlighted positive inter-A trustful organizer increases feelings of safety group interaction and active support after the race,and comfort. According to media representative when the sportspeople came together, celebrated,Andy, the supporting stakeholders also played a and relaxed at the finish line. Matt, a local atten-key role in creating feelings of confidence and dee from Colombo, stated that “irrespective ofsafety among participants: their ethnic backgrounds, people were given mas- sages and physical treatment at the finish line.”It was a very safe event! We took the security’s Andy summed up that it was great to experienceadvice and didn’t have any problem. You get the

fullest support from all the authorities, security, that “we [the Sinhalese] can get something from police, army, and everything. And because of the them, and they [the Tamils] can get something fullest support it was a 100% secure event. from us also!”

Contact and Networks. The category of Con-However, a safe and secure intercommunity sport event does not automatically generate full tacts and Networks includes elements of establish-

ing and advancing individual contacts and friend-trust among ethnic groups that have been engaged in civil war for over 25 years. Government repre- ships; increasing intergroup contacts and bridging;

and establishing business relationships.sentative Jayo explained that “there was some kind

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 113

Learning means sometimes the organization ofThe IR4P contributed to establishing individual the race. So different parts of the day: that thecontacts and friendships among participants, spec- transport things are there, the food is there, ac-

tators, and organizers. Interview respondents de- commodation is there, the media part is there. So scribed the sport event as an opportunity to get in when someone organizes this type of event, these

things are to be considered. So actually we got atouch with other people from their own ethnic lot of outcome from this one event, regarding thegroup and with individuals from other ethnic back- things we must think of all the time. That’s right.grounds. Shanto, a member of the Sinhalese Nat- So myself and my officers also, they got a lot of

tandiya community, reported that “after the Run experience from this race. So next time we are for Peace I also met up with some new Muslim doing this, we have the knowledge. friends from MTV and Red Bull, from Lotteries Board and I am still friends with them. They are Kevin’s comment suggests that the local com- coming to our parties and they are good friends munities will benefit from the increase in knowl- for always.” The sport event further offered “the edge when organizing future activities and sport chance to interact with foreigners from the US, events. Europe, Australia, and other parts of Asia,” which represents an opportunity for extending contacts to Negative Sociocultural Experiences the international level. The international partici-

Attitudes. Around the event, differences in atti-pants and volunteers agreed by saying that the tudes towards the organizers, participants, andsport event contributed to “forming new social re- spectators could be observed. People showed vary-lationships. We won a lot of contacts in Sri Lanka ing levels of enthusiasm and engagement in re-while working at this event. Actually, we won a gards to the events and the “Games for Peace”lot of friends.” theme. For example, onlookers from the localIn addition to the newly established intragroup community, who were not directly involved in theand intergroup contacts, the IR4P allowed for pro- sport event, disturbed participants and were de-fessional contacts to be developed. Mark said that scribed as not having the best intentions. Sinhalesefor individuals, particularly those from the orga- IR4P participant Anu observed: “I could see fromnizing committee, it was the chance to “make im- their behavior and the way that they were talkingportant business contacts with . . . the Sri Lankan that they were not really for the program. Someorganizers, the Sri Lankan sponsors, the Sri were coming to see girls; some were coming justLankan people from the Ministries, [who] were all to laugh at the [participants].”involved in the organizing of the event.” Overall,

Anu went on to describe these spectators ascontacts, friendships, and networks were valued as “disturbing intruders,” who did not share the spirita vital part in the intra- and intercommunity devel- of the event but intimidated participants. Thisopment process: on the interpersonal, intragroup, comment highlights an issue that open intercom-and intergroup levels. munity sport events contain risks of behavior that

Learning and Development. The category of is not conducive to positive social outcomes. Learning and Development includes the develop- Further illustrations of this theme of Attitudes ment of specific sport and management skills; in- related to the welcome speeches given at the open- tercultural learning; and the expansion of cultural ing of the IR4P event. While most participants, perspectives. The IR4P allowed people to gain a spectators, and volunteers actively “lived” a better understanding of each other and to learn that peaceful togetherness and encouraged others to in- togetherness is possible and indeed beneficial teract and participate, the chief guests only went within a noncompetitive leisure environment. as far as “doing their job” and were not seen to Kevin from the Ministry of Sports believed that contribute greatly to the broader social develop- members of the local communities learned valu- ment objectives of the event. Sudu, a Sinhalese able social skills, and gained professional knowl- community member from Marawila, was not im- edge from partaking in the planning, management, pressed with the style of the speech given by the

Sinhalese chief guest, saying that “some wordsand implementation phases. As he explained:

114 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

that he used to introduce these Muslim people that “transportation and logistical problems” were to blame for the lower than expected participantwere words that were really not matching. It

wasn’t only negative . . . I also felt that he was numbers. He suggested that traveling to Colombo was a hindering factor particularly for the Tamilalso not civilized, so not very polite.” Sudu’s com-

ment shows that she did not feel her community and Muslim communities from the northeastern parts of the island. Arguably, the 2004 event inwas being represented appropriately by the chief

guest. Kandy attracted more participants as access for the Muslim and Tamil communities was easier and

Management Tensions. This category includes more comfortable, due to smaller travel distances

communication problems and management issues and less Governmental restrictions.

resulting in a smaller than expected number of Another managerial issue was mentioned by

participants at the sport event and the after party. Shanto, who observed that fewer than expected lo-

Mark, a member of the IR4P organizing team, ar- cal participants and spectators attended the sport

gued that communication issues were prevailing in event after party:

the lead-up phase of the sport event. The organiz- ing group became frustrated with certain stake-

There were a lot of people participating in the holders, who did not provide sufficient input and marathon, but after they were running, after they did not communicate properly and inclusively: got their certificates and got their prizes, they

vanished. Now this is not a complaint but a thing missing: only the A.G.S.E.P. staff and the PeaceI wished that [the Ministry of Sports] would have Village staff were at the music show. [We needtold us more about their decisions and what they better] organization and planning to include ALLwere thinking. When we had meetings with the people. We must inform [everyone], and if theyMinistry we were basically always telling what support the marathon, they should be at the partywe were thinking and how we would like to do also, because it was for them!that and they approved it or not. But they never

really told us what they wanted to do with this event, what it meant to them. So that was in my Shanto’s comments do not explain the reasons eyes clearly a problem. as to why he believed local participation was low,

but differences in sociocultural values may have While Mark wished for more input and com- contributed to the disappointing attendance of lo-

muniqué from the Sports Ministry, he also ac- cals at the after party. The organizers explained knowledged that communication issues may have that modern Western style attire, music, and danc- originated from uncertainty or a lack of under- ing were dominant, and that alcohol was readily standing in the values and goals of the sport event. available. These elements may have affected peo- He went on to say: ple’s decision to attend the party.

DiscussionWe thought they knew what we wanted to do with this event. But we didn’t explain well enough

The aim of this research was to empirically testwhat our goals and objectives were. [Probably] whether the IR4P as an intercommunity sport eventthey saw it as just another sport event and did not

put as much heart into it as we did. could provide positive sociocultural experiences on a practical level, while enhancing intergroup rela- tions and stocks of social capital between disparatePoor communication and cooperation between

organizers and stakeholders in the lead-up phases Sinhalese, Tamil, and Muslim communities in Sri Lanka. Seven broad themes emerged from theof the sport event led to a decrease in overall reg-

istration numbers. Many people who had been in- study, representing both positive and negative soci- ocultural experiences (see Table 2).volved in the 2004 National Run for Peace in

Kandy “noticed that this year participation was Five themes were seen to contribute to an in- crease in the stock of social capital and a reductionlow, which was a bit disappointing” and that valu-

able opportunities for maximizing sport event ben- of social barriers, which play a role in enhancing intergroup relations. First, the IR4P provided par-efits were lost. Marco, on the other hand, believed

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 115

ticipants and their communities with important op- ing the race in Colombo. The IR4P encouraged people to help others in need, which shows thatportunities for socializing, as opposed to a passive

spectator experience of elite performance and around sport events reciprocal exchanges and soli- darity are possible even among members of dispa-symbolic representations of social interaction. So-

cializing within and between groups was enabled rate communities. These findings add to Yuen’s (2005) results from her study on an internationalthrough the active participation encouraged by

A.G.S.E.P. around the sport event—an inclusive sport camp, which showed that leisure activities can foster reciprocal support in social learning anddevelopment approach conducive to intergroup de-

velopment (Atkinson, 1991; Schulenkorf, 2010a; skill development. Fourth, the sport event facilitated contact withinUnited Nations, 2006). These active participatory

opportunities reduced the distance between people groups and opportunities to establish networks be- tween groups, which suggest that new relation-and groups; further, they allowed people to a)

share the experience of a sport event with others, ships were formed on the intragroup and inter- group levels. In fact, links were also created onb) contribute to the innovative idea of peace build-

ing through sport events, and c) celebrate with the institutional level, as members of the organiz- ing team benefited from improved business con-newly made friends at the after-party.

Second, also contributing to a supportive envi- tacts and the creation of professional networks. This indicates that the sport event contributed toronment capable of building social capital is the

notion that the IR4P was identified as a neutral the bonding, bridging, and linking elements indic- ative of social capital building (Putnam, 2000;space for participation. As such, the sport event

was seen as a promising starting point for the cre- Woolcock, 2001). It is argued that the active engagement of par-ation of trust with an intrinsic power for removing

barriers between people, groups, and institutions ticipants and organizers at the community level provided a vehicle and catalyst to such an effec-(see Brown et al., 2003). Respondents argued that

the impartiality of A.G.S.E.P., the official support tive development of social capital within an in- tensely short sport event life cycle. While previousfrom all communities, police presence, and the so-

cial peace theme contributed to feelings of safety, studies have shown that cultural events and festi- vals can establish contacts and facilitate networkscomfort, and inclusiveness among participating

groups. The neutrality component of sport events within communities (Reid, 2006; Small, 2007), this study found that a noncompetitive sport envi-had been outlined in the literature as an important

opportunity to place diverse groups on a level ronment allows for networking and relationship building even among members of groups that areplaying field where relationships and trust can de-

velop. This study confirms this argument and find- engaged in a quasi civil war. Fifth, learning and development plays a criticalings link to the three types of trust Putnam (1993,

2000, 2003) claims are a central part of social cap- role in the intercommunity sport event context and is considered to operate at two levels. First, coop-ital: personalized trust, generalized trust, and insti-

tutional trust. This suggests that carefully planned eration between the communities and A.G.S.E.P. provided locals with opportunities to participateintercommunity sport events can provide a vehicle

for both bonding and bridging social capital, even with and learn from others in a culturally diverse environment. Community members who were in-in divided societies.

A third element of social capital is reciprocity volved in the organization and design of the sport event had the chance to expand their horizons, as(Putnam, 1993, 2000; Stone, 2001), which was

demonstrated in this study through the active en- they were able to learn management skills through working alongside A.G.S.E.P. Second, it wasgagement for physical and emotional support for

others. On a physical level, some well-off people found that they had the opportunity to shape and develop the sport event program as a culturallyprovided the poorer ones with sport equipment

such as running shoes and clothing, while on an diverse team, a learning process that built bridges between people and groups (see Auld & Case,emotional level, participants were continuously

encouraged and cheered on by local residents dur- 1997; Brown et al., 2003). Respondents revealed

116 SCHULENKORF, THOMSON, AND SCHLENKER

that intercultural learning contributed to inter- ties to advance both bonding and bridging social capital. This example highlights the importance ofgroup understanding and respect.

While the five themes previously discussed including the communities’ voices in the strategic event management process to cater for local de-have been shown to make positive contributions to

social capital stocks and the break-down of social mands (see Getz & Frisby, 1988; Kelly, 2002; Schulenkorf, 2010a).barriers, it must also be recognized that intercom-

munity sport events such as the IR4P can be sub- This research has a number of implications for the planning and management of future intercom-ject to negative influences, which may create neg-

ative outcomes for participating groups. First, munity sport events that aim to improve inter- group relations and contribute to social capitaldifferences in attitudes and social behavior may

occur inside and outside the sport event environ- building in divided societies. It was demonstrated that opportunities for socializing and establishingment; for example, by inapt manners shown by

community members towards “others” at the sport contacts and networks exist before, during, and after the event. Before the event, they come in theevents. Respondents revealed that some people

who were not directly involved in the sport event form of positions on the organizing committee, where event organizers are encouraged to providemade negative comments about the event organiz-

ers and active participants. This suggests that parts opportunities for local participation; during the event they come in the form of volunteering, at-of the community did not accept the idea of inter-

community celebration, or perhaps rejected the tending, or participating in sporting activities; and after the event they come from contributions andidea of a Western change agent organizing sport

events in the Global South (see, e.g., Guest, 2009). involvement in follow-up projects. In all three in- stances, social capital can be created and advancedIn some cases, locals intimidated participants and

spectators with words and gestures, which high- through bonding with like-minded individuals from people’s own social group and bridging withlights the potential of a sport event to reduce the

stock of social capital through eroding the sense people from other communities. To have lasting value, the new networks need to be sustained be-of safety, comfort, and trust, which is considered

so important to facilitating social capital building yond the first contact, and strategies for follow-up events and community celebrations should be put(Putnam, 1993, 2000).

Second, communication problems and cultural in place by empowered communities and support- ive event organizers.differences were identified as the main reasons for

management tensions. Respondents revealed that Importantly, a “level playing field” or “neutral space” for interaction needs to be provided by im-when interacting with people from ethnically di-

verse groups, a different interpretation of values partial event organizers, and people from all dif- ferent ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds shouldoccurred. There were examples where differences

in enthusiasm for the event’s ideals and a lack of be encouraged to participate and share experiences as a team. The focus of intercommunity eventsrespect towards “others” led to disagreement and

tensions between groups. For example, the dedi- should be on the social and leisure experiences while competition should not be emphasized tocated peace activists were left frustrated with par-

ticipants and stakeholders who focused predomi- avoid the reemergence of rivalries. Furthermore, organizers have to be aware of the potential nega-nantly on the physical sport aspect of the event.

Furthermore, respondents observed that the after- tive impacts and limits of peace events and pre- pare locals for differences in community attitudes.party was dominated by international participants,

volunteers, and tourists, which left both the orga- Some people may not be open to sport as a means or vehicle for integration, and others may simplynizers and attendees disappointed. It was found

that the timing and location of the sport event and refuse to reconcile after years of sociopolitical ten- sions. Overall, while intercommunity sport eventsafter-party sites presented great challenges for the

participating communities. As a consequence, should be encouraged and expanded as valuable opportunities for social capital building, they can-many locals were unable or unwilling to partici-

pate in the sport event, which reduced opportuni- not be regarded and promoted as a panacea for all

INTERCOMMUNITY SPORT EVENTS 117

problems between disparate communities in di- sport events can be a starting point, a vehicle, a vided societies. booster, and a catalyst for social capital. Future

research should build on these findings and focus on developing strategies to sustain and grow rela-Conclusion tionships and social capital beyond the sport event

Sport and sport events have been criticized for lifecycle, and to leverage positive experiences to their lack of rigorous empirical evaluation and the the wider community. reliance on subjective experiences and anecdotes suggesting that they can contribute to intergroup

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