history
The Age of Jackson
Jackson was an important president whose impact on the American political system lasted until the Civil War. His policies as President are the source of ongoing debate among historians since they both had negative and positive effects.
Jackson himself was a self made man; he came from poor Scottish farmers and taught himself law, was a member of the House of Representatives, and worked his way up the ranks of the Tennessee state militia to General by the advent of the War of 1812. His performance against the Creek Indians and the defense of New Orleans.
He was President from 1829-1837.
Jackson before his Presidency
Jackson was responsible for a series of victories against Southern Indian tribes in the War of 1812.
His victory in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend over the Creek Indians allowed Jackson to dictate the peace terms.
Jackson demanded the Creek give up 23 million acres of land in present-day Georgia and Alabama.
Jackson before his Presidency
Jackson’s successful defense of New Orleans (two weeks after the peace treaty was signed) made him a national hero and helped which helped him win the presidential nomination.
In 1817, the Seminole natives took to raiding the settlements of Americans who settled along the border of Georgia and Florida.
Jackson before his Presidency
In response, Jackson led a punitive expedition into Florida without the consent of Congress.
This was known as the First Seminole War and though Jackson was successful in defeating the Seminole, this had a negative impact on Spanish-American relations.
Jackson became the provisional governor of Florida in 1821. He did not enjoy this post and served only until December of 1821.
Jackson before his Presidency
The 1824 election pitted Jackson against three other Democratic-Republican candidates: John Quincy Adams, William Crawford, and Henry Clay.
Jackson received the more popular and electoral votes than any of the other candidates, however, he did not receive the 131 votes needed to win the presidential election.
For this reason, the election was taken before the House of Representatives to decide.
Jackson before his Presidency
The House declared that John Quincy Adams, the runner up to Jackson, was the victor of the election and he became the 6th President of the United States.
Jackson and his supporters dubbed this slight “the corrupt bargain.”
Jackson before his Presidency
Adams’ reelection bid in 1828 was severely hamstrung by southern discontent over the tariff, which allowed Jackson to seize the presidency in that election.
Jackson favored a populist approach to politics, asserting that the president’s power came from the consent of the people.
This made him opposed to elitism in any form, as was seen by the ‘open house’ style party he held to celebrate his inauguration.
Tariff of Abominations
A major point of controversy during John Quincy Adams’ administration was the establishment of the Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations.
The aim of the tariff was to protect northern industry from low priced imported goods.
Tariff of Abominations
The South was hurt by the tariff as they needed to pay higher prices for manufactured goods from the North, rather than the cheaply made foreign goods.
The British began importing less cotton from the South. This led to a situation in which, though the United States’ GDP grew, the South was facing reduced sales.
Tariff of Abominations
In protest, John C. Calhoun anonymously wrote the pamphlet The South Carolina Exposition and Protest in 1828.
This piece threw the constitutionality of the tariff into question and urged its nullification by South Carolina.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
He was opposed to the national bank and nullification while favoring the removal of the Native American tribes from areas east of the Mississippi.
1830 saw the attempted introduction of a bill that would restrict the sale of new plots of land by the government until the existing land surveyed was sold.
Eventually the debate over this bill regressed to a discussion on the tariff and whether or not the north was attempting to impose its will on the south.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
The conversation turned towards issues of sectionalism when Thomas Hart Benton from Missouri claimed that New England industrialists aimed to restrict the growth of the western states.
Robert Hayne from South Carolina leapt at the opportunity to create a coalition against the north and the tariff.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
Known as the Webster-Hayne debate, the series of impromptu speeches given by Daniel Webster of Massachusetts in 1830 in response to Hayne.
The speeches were not only some of the most eloquent speeches ever seen in Congress, but also important arguments in favor of union and American nationalism.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
Eventually the problem of the Tariff of Abominations escalated.
Jackson, seeking to relieve the southern states, signed into effect an 1832 tariff to replace the 1828 tariff. While the new tariff reduced the duties levied on incoming goods, it also had the effect of reaffirming the national belief in protectionist economic policies.
This galvanized the already angry pro-nullification party in South Carolina.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
In response to the new tariff, South Carolina’s State Convention passed an ordinance that declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void while also threatening secession.
A provision in the ordinance allotted for the creation of an armed militia should the federal government send troops to enforce the tariff.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
Angered by South Carolina’s disobedience, Jackson took the stance that secession was illegal and that force could be used to keep a state within the union. He requested and received an endorsement by Congress to use the military to affirm federal power in South Carolina. Congress agreed, passing the Force Bill of 1833, which allowed the army and navy to be deployed and compel South Carolina to pay the tariff.
Luckily, the Compromise Tariff was passed before the use of force became necessary to pacify South Carolina. This tariff set a time table for the gradual reduction of duties on imports to 1816 levels by 1842.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
Ever the adversary of Native Americans, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This bill gave the president the authorization to negotiate with tribes in the South over their removal to territory west of the Mississippi River. $500,000 was appropriated for the negotiations.
A year after the passage of the law, a case was brought up against the state of Georgia by the Cherokee Nation. Georgians were passing laws with the intent to disenfranchise the Cherokee and thereby force their removal from the land; the laws in question violated previous treaties held between the Cherokee and the federal government.
In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, the Cherokee took the stance that Georgia’s government could not pass laws affecting a sovereign state while Georgia held the position that the Cherokee were not in fact a sovereign state. While the Supreme Court heard the arguments, they refused to make a ruling on the case.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
A year after the case between Georgia and the Cherokee, the question of Indian sovereignty was once again brought before the court. Georgia passed a law requiring white people living in Cherokee territory to get a state license to do so. When missionary Samuel Worcester refused to do so, he was arrested.
The ensuing case was known as Worcester v. Georgia. Whereas the court had previously ruled that native tribes were ‘wards’ of the United States, they now asserted that the tribes were in fact independent nations immune to American legislation. Furthermore, they held the opinion that the Indian Removal Act was unconstitutional.
In spite of the court rule, Jackson went ahead with the programs outlined in the Indian Removal Act, reputedly saying, “John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it.” The Indian Removal Act directly led to the forced migration of 15,000 Native Americans during the Trail of Tears, of which at least 4,000 died.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
Jackson’s economic policy was regressive to say the least. He viewed the Second National Bank as an elitist institution that would eventually undermine democracy in America. With the bank’s authorization running out in 1836, Congress voted to re-charter the bank. After passing through Congress, the bill was promptly vetoed by Jackson.
The need to relocate patron funds deposited in the National Bank led to the ‘pet bank’ system. Part of a larger ‘spoils system’ (in which favors, positions of power, and assets were given to Jackson's supporters,) the National Bank began to disseminate funds into 22 state banks in 1833. This number increase to nearly 100 in 1836, with the distribution of $5 million to the states adding to the already $22 million sent.
Jackson’s Presidency (1829-1837)
The massive influx of tender distributed to banks that were inadequately regulated was disastrous. The sharp increase of loans and printed money caused increased inflation which was the major cause of the Panic of 1837.
Aside from his disastrous monetary policy, Jackson also issued an Executive Order in 1836 which required the purchase of federal land through gold and silver as opposed to paper money. This was aimed at curtailing the damage caused by speculation over the land acquired in the Indian Removal Act.
This further reduced the value of paper money, further increasing inflation and making the 1837 recession worse. From a Political standpoint, it created another issue to further the schism between the Democrats and the Whigs.