Org leader hw 3
MGMT 560 – Organizational Leadership
Effective Thinking
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“Strategic thinking is an examination of the environment and is an intuitive and creative process that results in the fusion of issues, patterns, interrelationships, and opportunities.” (D. McCauley, National Defense University)
“The ability to make a creative and holistic synthesis of key factors affecting an organization and its environment in order to obtain sustainable competitive advantage and long-term success. Strategic thinking meshes anticipated requirements with future organizational capabilities to ensure the organization “wins” in the future.” (U.S. Army War College)
“If you are thinking about how to better posture your organization to succeed in the future, then you are conducting strategic thinking.” (CAPT D.E. Waters, USN, Ret.)
What is Strategic Thinking?
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“…staffs that support strategic leaders…should be able to think strategically in order to properly support their senior leaders.”
“ Strategic thinking requires both critical and creative thinking to be effective. In order to think strategically, leaders and their staffs must develop innovative strategic options and then evaluate these ideas through effective critical thinking.”
(Ref: Waters, D.E., Understanding Strategic Thinking and Developing Strategic Thinkers)
Why is Strategic Thinking Important?
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Strategic Thinking
Reference: Meinhart, R.M, Leadership and Strategic Thinking.
Strategic Thinking
- Systems thinking – a discipline of seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of change rather than static “snapshots.” – Peter Senge
- Thinking in time – the use of history or past experiences. An understanding of why occurrences happened.
- Ethical thinking – considering ethical dimensions of ambiguous, complex issues to ensure that costly mistakes or blind spots do not occur.
- Critical thinking – the deliberate, conscious, and appropriate application of reflective skepticism.
- Creative thinking – the ability to produce novel ideas that are valued by others.
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Systems Thinking
(Peter Senge – The Fifth Discipline)
- “Systems thinking is a discipline of seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of change rather than static “snapshots.”
- The essence of systems thinking (a shift in mind):
- Seeing interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains
- Seeing processes of change rather than snapshots
- “Reality is made up of circles but we see straight lines.”
- “The search for scapegoats…is a blind alley.”
- Reinforcing and balancing feedback
- Delays
- Self-fulfilling prophecy – vicious versus virtuous cycles
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Organizations and the System Concept
(Katz & Kahn, 1978)
- “An energetic input-output system in which the energetic return from the output reactivates the system.”
- “Transactions between the organization and its environment.”
- “Systems theory is basically concerned with problems of relationships, of structure, and of interdependence rather than with the attributes of objects.”
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Thinking in Time
- The use of history or past experiences. An understanding of why occurrences happened.
- Convergent thinking (thinking inward rather than thinking outward)
- “Having seen the future that we want to create, what must we keep from our past, lose from the past, and create in our present, to get there?”
Thinking in Time
- Thinking in time has three components (Neustadt & May, 1986):
- Recognition that the future has no place to come from but the past, hence the past has predictive value.
- Recognition that what matters for the future is departures from the past, alterations, changes.
- Continuous comparison from the present to future to past and back.
“Strategic Thinking (Thinking in Time) connects the past, present, and future and in this way uses both an institution’s memory and its broad historical context as critical inputs into the creation of the future” (Lawrence, 1999).
Thinking in Time
- The use of history can stimulate imagination: Seeing the past can help one envision future alternatives.
- The use of experience in the process of deciding what to do today about the prospect for tomorrow.
What does the organization need to “decide today about the prospect of tomorrow”? How can “seeing the past” help with these decisions?
Ethical Thinking
Ethical Guidelines or Principles
- GOLDEN RULE — Are you treating others as you would want to be treated?
- THE GUT-FEELING TEST — Body reactions such as a gut-feeling often indicate the need for more thought. Intuition can give a sense of right and wrong before our brains have thought it out.
- PUBLICITY — Would you be comfortable if your reasoning and decision were on the front page of tomorrow’s newspapers or on the TV news?
- KID-ON-YOUR-SHOULDER — Would you be comfortable if young children were observing you? Are you practicing what you preach?
- THE ROLE-MODEL TEST — What would a person you respect think or feel about a decision you are proposing?
Other approaches:
- WORST-CASE SCENARIOS - It is sometimes helpful to consider the worst case scenario. This may highlight consequences or possibilities you had not thought of before.
- CHANGING GOALS/METHODS - Consider whether ethically questionable conduct can be avoided by modifying goals or methods.
- CONSULTATION - Consider consulting with those likely to be affected in order to get their input or consent. This may avoid unethical options all together.
Ref: Holistic Education Network
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Ethical Thinking
Three Types of Ethical Thinking
- Ends-based thinking - deciding to do whatever provides the greatest good for the greatest number. This is known as the principle of utilitarianism. It relies on being able to predict the consequences of different actions.
- Rule-based thinking - deciding what to do based on a rule that you believe should be a general principle that is always followed. Rule-based thinking acknowledges that you can never really know all the consequences of your actions and that it is better to stick to one's principles.
- Care-based thinking - deciding what to do based on the idea that this is what we would want others to do to you. This is known as the principle of reversibility and is at the center of most religious teachings.
Making ethical decisions is not about applying just one of these ways of thinking, nor is it about applying all of them and choosing the action that wins the majority. It is about creative and reflective thinking to become aware of the complexity and possibilities of an ethical issue. It is about using heart and head - hopefully also with the wisdom of the soul.
Thinking ethically is not a purely logical rational process. In the final analysis intuition might be a deciding factor in making a decision.
Ref: Holistic Education Network
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Critical Thinking
“The deliberate, conscious, and appropriate application of reflective skepticism.”
“A well-cultivated critical thinker raises vital questions and problems, gathers and assesses relevant information, and can effectively interpret it; comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards; thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.” (Paul & Elder, Critical Thinking)
Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
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Critical Thinking
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Critical Thinking
- Inferences – an intellectual act in which we conclude something based on a perception as to how the facts and evidence of a situation fit together.
- Assumption – something that is taken for granted.
- Point of View – a frame of reference.
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Critical Thinking
Traps and Errors
- Confirmation Trap – a condition in which people tend to seek confirmatory information for what they think is true and either fail to search for or discard inconsistent and disconfirming evidence.
- Fundamental Attribution Error – a phenomenon in which people tend to have a default assumption that what a person does is based more on what “type” of person he is, rather than the social and environmental forces at work in that situation.
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Critical Thinking
Reasoning/Logical Fallacies
- Arguments Against the Person – when someone tries to attack the person representing an argument rather than the argument itself.
- False Dichotomy – when someone presents a complex situation in black and white terms, i.e., they present only two alternatives when many exist.
- Appeal to Unqualified Authority – when a cited authority is weakly credentialed for the matter at hand.
- False Cause – someone argues that because two events occurred together and one followed the other closely in time, then the first event caused the second event.
- Appeal to Fear – an implicit or explicit threat of harm to advance your position.
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Critical Thinking
Reasoning/Logical Fallacies
- Appeal to the Masses – an assertion that if something is good for everyone else, it must be good for me.
- Slippery Slope – when the conclusion of an argument rests upon an alleged chain reaction and there is not sufficient reason to conclude that the chain reaction will actually take place.
- Weak Analogy – the analogy used in not strong enough to support the conclusion that is being drawn.
- Red Herring – the attention of a reader or listener is diverted with the insertion of some distracting information that is flashy, eye-catching and generally not relevant to the topic at hand.
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Critical Thinking
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Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
Creative Thinking
- Creative thinking involves thinking in new, innovative ways while capitalizing on imagination, insight, and novel ideas.
- Organizational Characteristics that Support Creativity:
- Risk taking is acceptable
- Project Team members have access to knowledge sources
- Creativity is rewarded
- New ideas and ways of doing things are welcomed
- Information is free flowing
- Good ideas are supported
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Creative Thinking
- Enhances individual and group creative problem solving processes.
- Facilitates innovation and creativity in an environment marked by ambiguity, complexity, and change.
- Without creative thinking, potential solutions may never be explored or discovered.
- Our predilection for quick answers and easy solutions hinders the process of divergent (creative) and convergent (critical) thinking.
- Creative thinking tends to be wasteful of time and energy without critical thinking (convergent thinking)
Creative Thinking
- “Weird Ideas that Work” (Sutton, R.L.):
- Decide to do something that will probably… fail, then convince yourself and everyone else that success is certain (succeed, then convince yourself and everyone else that success is certain).
- Think of some… ridiculous or impractical things to do, and plan to do them (sound or practical things to do, and plan to do them).
- Seek out… “slow learners” (of the organizational code); people who make you feel uncomfortable, even those you dislike; people you (probably) don’t need (and be attentive to people who will evaluate and endorse your work).
- Take your past successes… and forget them (and replicate them).
- Ignore people… who have solved the exact problem you face (who have never solved the exact problem you face).
Black – weird ideas that work Purple – conventional ideas that work
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Strategic Thinking Framework
References
Allen, C.D. (2009). Creative thinking for individual and teams: An essay on creative thinking for military professional. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College.
Allen, C.D. & Gerras, S.J. (Nov-Dec, 2009). Developing creative and critical thinkers. Military Review, 77-83.
Allen, C.D., Cunningham, G.K., & Klinger, J. (2009). Systems thinking for strategic leaders. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College.
Dorff, R.H. (2001). A primer in strategic development. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College.
Gerras, S.J. (2008). Thinking critically about critical thinking: A fundamental guide for strategic leaders. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College.
Joint Publication 5-0 (Aug, 2011). Joint operation planning. Arlington, VA: Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Katz, D. & Kahn, R.L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Lawrence, E. (1999). Strategic Thinking: A discussion paper. Public Service Commission of Canada.
Liedtka, J. (1998). Strategic thinking: Can it be taught? Long Range Planning, 31(1), 121.
McCauley. D. (Feb, 2011). Strategic thinking: Providing the competitive edge [Electronic version]. Small Wars Journal.
McConnell, R., Lira, L.L., Gerges, M. & McCollum, B. (2011). How we think: Thinking critically and creatively and how military professionals can do it better [Electronic version]. Small Wars Journal.
Neustadt, R.E. & May, E.R. (1986). Thinking in time: The uses of history for decision makers. New York: The Free Press.
Puccio, G.J. & Murdock, M.C. (2006). Creative leadership: Skills that drive change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Senge, P.M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.
Waters, D.E. (2011). Understanding strategic thinking and developing strategic thinkers. Joint Forces Quarterly, 63(4), 113-119.
Strategic Thinking Framework
Creative
Thinking
Thinking
In Time
Systems Thinking
Ethical
Thinking
Critical
Thinking
Foundation
Know Yourself, Know Others and Reflect