theater

The Sacred and the Secular --In

India's Performing Arts-- Ananda K. Coomaraswamy Centenary Essays

Edited by Prof. v. Subramaniam

ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE NEW DELHI-110027

published by : Shri S.B. Nangia,

for ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE: CONTENTS H-12, Rajouri Garden,

New Delhi-l10027.. PART I

1980

@ With the Contributors

Printed at :

National Printers, West Patel Nagar, New Delhi-l 10008

Phone: 582828

I. The Sacred and the Secular: Symbiosis and Synthesis

-Prof. V. Subramaniam

II. Religion as a Bridge between Classical . \. and Folk Art

-Prof. V. Subramaniam , ..

III. The King-God Concept and the Arts -Prof. V. Subramaniam

IV. The Rasa Theory: Theology or Aesthe- tics

-Prof. V.K. Chari

V. The Place of Indian Classical Dance in

Traditional Indian Culture

-Anne-Marie Gaston

VI. Secularism in Yakshagana - Martha B. Ashton

PART II

VII. Bharata Nat yam -Dr. T. Balasaraswati

VIII. The History and the Origin of the

Thumri with Special Reference to Gharanas and Style

-Premlata Sharma

IX. The Evolution of the Thumri -Jaideva Singh

1

... 11

... 19

... 47

... 62

... 86

... 98

... 109

•. .124

( iv )

X. The Musical Evolution of the Gazal -Ashok Ranade .

XI. Kootiyattam (A General Survey)

-K. Kunjunni Raja

XU. The Yakshagana of Karnataka -K. Shivram Karanth

Appendix

The Editor's Postscript

. .. 133

... 138

... 151

... 163

... 18l

A NOTE ON OUR CONTRIBUTORS

Prof. V. Subramaniam, the editor is Professor of Politi- cal Science at Carleton University ; Ottawa and a classical composer of acknowledged merit. In the last few years, he has done considerable work on cultural sociology and history of which his recent book Cultural Integration in India (Ashish Publishing House) is a good example. For more background information see the dust jacket.

Prof. V.K. Chari, is a Profe ssor of English Literature at Carleton University and has done much work on Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics. He is also an accomplished Katha- kali dancer.

Anne-Marie Gaston (Anjali) recently completed her B. Phil. Thesis at Oxford-from which the present chapter is taken . She is a professional Bharata Nat yam and Odissi dancer of repute with considerable knowledge of Kuchipudi and Kathakali.

Dr. Martha Ashton is a cultural anthropologist who has worked in Karnataka on folk culture. She is also an ac- complished Yakshagana dancer.

Dr. Balasaraswati is the doyen of Bharata Nat yam dancers and one who played an important part in the revival of this ancient art. She is the grand daughter of the legen- dary genius of the Veena, Dhanammal and has taught in Universities in India and the West.

Dr. Premlata Sharma is Reader, Theory and Research College of Music and Fine Arts, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.

Dr. Jaideva Singh, musicologist and authority on Hin- dustani music lives in, D 61/26 F, Vishram Kuti, Siddhagiri

. Bagb, Varanasi.

( vi )

Dr. Ashok Ranade is the Head, University Music Centre, University of Bombay, Dnyandevi Sahitya Sahawas, Bandra (East), Bombay-400051.

Dr. K. Kunjunne Raja is Professor of Sanskrit, Depart- ment of Sanskrit, University of Madras, Chepauk, Triplicane- p.d., Madras-600005.

Dr. K. Shivram Karanth, Like a many-splendoured god from a Yakshagana play Shivram Karanth towers over the world of Kannada letters and art. This renowned novelist, play-wright, educationist and, above all, the man who revived the ancient art of Yakshagana Bayalata was recently honoured with the prestigious Jnanpith Award.

His name is synonymous with Yakshagana, the cen- turies-old folk theatre of Karnataka. But almost all his iIlllovations, such as doing away with the dialogue, have been widely questioned.

He is living in Suhasa, Saligrama P.O., Udipi Taluk. South Kanara, Karnataka State-576225.

'. '

CHAPTER XI

KOOTIY ATT AM

(A General Survey)

-K. Kunjunni R aja

The Kootiyattam1 of Kerala is perhaps the only form of the ancient Sanskrit drama that survives in performance to- day. It bas been kept alive in the temple theatres ofKerala (which are known as Koothampalams) by members of the Chakyar and Nambyar communities. The Kootiyattam has a continuous tradition extending for more than a thousand year s. A close comparative study of the stage practice of this theatre, with the prescriptions given in detail in Bharata's Naty ashastra and the references to the actual sta- ging of Sanskrit play found in later works like the Kuttani- mata, reveals that the Kerala tradition of staging Sanskrit plays follows, on the whole, the procedure adopted in other parts of India in ancient times. At the same time, it points to various specia l features mostly developed in Kerala to suit the taste of the audiences there. A detailed analy sis of the descriptive and historical aspects of the Kootiyattam, is, therefore, essential for an understanding of the ancient .San skrit stage in India.

The history of the Sanskrit stage in Kerala goes back to

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.at least the tenth century A.D. This is when King Kula- sehkhara Varman of M aho daya pura, the author of the two ,dramas Subhadradhananjaya and Tapatisam varana, is said to have reformed the Sanskrit stage with the help of a Brah- min scholar, who was popularly known as Tolan, and may 'probably be identified as the author of the Vyangya com- mentaries on them. King Kulasbekbara Varman's innova-

tions included the introduction of the Malyalam language by the Vidushaka to expl ain the Sanskrit and Prakrit passages on the texts . The Vidushaka often us ed a macaronic Sans- krit-Malayalam, a mixed language called Manipravala. In the case of the Prakr it passages recited by him or by athers in his presence, he used to give the Sanskrit Chaya (rendering) and then explain its meaning in Malayalam. He also added his own parodies or Pratishlokas of some of the verses re- cited by the hero in his presence . He often inserted Chaya- shlokas or parallel passages , referring to his own condition.

Another innovation was the humorous element which ·consisted of such extraneous matter as the parody on the Purusharthas. This formed part of the narration of the early 'life (Nirvahana) of the Vidushaka. The four Purusharthas, sanctified by tradition, are replaced by the four aims of exis- tence of a corrupt society . These are described as Asana

.(food), Vinoda (enjoyment of sexual pleasures ), Vanchana -(deception) and Raja seva (serving a king). The Vidushaka is the most prominent and the most popular figure in Kooti- .yattam and Koothu. In course of time he came to over-

.shadow all the other characters in a play.

Didactic and cultural el ements were gradually introduc- ed; stories from the epics and Puranas were added-and sometimes even when they were quite irrelevant-so that the stage was used in an interesting manner as a vehicle for .adult education and for tbe moral uplift of the people.

Thus in the Mantraka scene of the Pratijnay augandha- .Tayana of Bhasa the Vidushaka is made to approach the

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mother of King Udayana and to console her by narrating: the story of Rama. The Vidushaka expounded Puranic epi- sodes, lacing the didactic element with humour, and making. veiled references to contemporary problems. His role in a play developed as an independent temple art called Koothu;. it included the exposition of Puranic stories without connec- ting them in any rigorous manner with a drama. The- Koothu came to be performed in the temple theatres by the- Chakyar dressed as the Vidushaka. This type of story-telling. when it was performed outside the temple precincts by others came to be called Pathaka. Several Sanskrit texts were writ- ten by scholars like Melpputtur Narayana Bhatta for such. expositions of Puranic stories.

The Kootiyattam is a form of art restricted to the tem- ple; it is performed only in the Koothampalarns or theatres within the precincts of temples and enacted by members of the Chakyar and Nambyar communities. The role of the hero or other male characters can be played only by a Chakyar. The women of the Chakyar community, who are called ll/ottamma, have nothing to do with the stage. The

role of the heroine and other female characters is to be taken by the Nangyar, the women of the Nambyar commu- nity. The vocal music is also supplied by Nangyars, who· keep the tala with the Kuzhitala cymbals. The Nambyar plays on the Mizhavu drum. He also acts as the sutradhara: for the introductory purappad and narrates in brief (in Mala- yalam) the story which is to be enacted.

At a time only a single act from a drama is staged. The' actual staging of a whole act lasts three to five nights; the introduction of characters (Nirvahana) and the preliminaries alone often take up twenty to thirty days. Of the popular scenes, Mantraka (Act Three of Bhasa's Prutijnayaugandha- rayana) is the most important and is depicted very elabo-· rately. Shaktibhadra's Ascharyachudamani; Subhadradha-

nanjaya and Tapatisamvarana, the two plays of Kulashekhara. Varman; Mattavilasa prahasana by the Pallava King

141

Mahendravikrama and some more plays ascribed to Bhasa like Abhisheka, Pratima and SlIapnavasavadatla and Harsha's Nagananda are also in the Chakyar's repertoire. Stage manuals for BhagavadajjukiJa are available. There is a tra- dition that Shakuntala used to be staged in former times.

Probably the all-India tradition of staging Sanskrit plays was revived by the Pallava kings of South India in the sixth and seventh centuries, and it spread to Kerala from there. The Kerala tradition says that King Kulashekhara Varman revived and reformed the Sanskrit Stage. This means that it must have been in existence even earlier. The terms Koothu (dance) and Chakaiyan (dancer) are found in the ancient Tamil classic Cilappatikaram; but it is not certain whether these had anything to do with the staging Sanskrit plays.

Koothampalam is the Malayalam name used for the theatre structures in the precincts of temples in Kerala where single acts of select Sanskrit plays are staged. It cor- responds to the natyamandapa of Sanskrit texts. More than a dozen such theatres are still preserved in various temples; the present structures of the Koothampalams are not much older than three hundred years, but the tradition of staging goes back to much earlier times. The theatre at the Vatak- kunnatha temple at Trichur is the largest. Most of the Koothampalams are rectangular; the interior stage structure within the auditorium is square in shape. Chengannoor had an oval-shaped theatre, but now only its base is extant. These theatres do not conform strictly to the directions found in the Natyashastra, but follow the main rules of construction laid down in the Sanskrit texts of Kerala like the Tantrasamucchay a (fifteenth century) of Narayana and the Shilparatna of Shrikumara (sixteenth century). Kootham- palams still stand at the Vatakkunnatha temple at Trichur, the Koodalmanikya temple at Irinjalakkuda, the Shiva tem- ple at Perumanam (in ruins), the temples at Guruvayur,

Kottappadi, Tiruvegappura, Tirumoozhikkulam, Trippunit-

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tura, Ettumanoor, Kit a ngur, Arpukkara, Harippad, Neeles- waram, Talipparamba and Panni yur (in ruins). Inscriptional evidence is available for the existence in fo rmer t imes of theatres at Avittathoor a nd Tiruvanchikkulam. Where the temples did not have a Kooth amp ala m, the Kooti yattam was allowed to be performed in agrashala halls. At th e Triprayar R ama temple where there is no Koothampalam, the Anguli-·

yanka scene from Shaktibhadra's A schary achudamani is stag- ed in the mukhamandapa right in front of the main shrine .

The Koothampalam is located in front of the shrine on

its right side . It belongs to the cl as s of Prasada structure . Though the sizes differ, all the structures follow a similar- pattern. The roof is an enor mous, four-sided structure, rectangul ar in shape, an d slopes downwards in a steep man- ner ; it is supported on beams resting on rows of pillars. The outer roof is either copper-plated or tiled with decorative flat tiles. At the top there are three finials or tazhikakkudams.

Inside the large auditorium is the raised stage; it is usu-· ally square shaped. It has a roof of its own, supported by round pill ar s. The outer edge of the stage which faces the God of the temple is built in alignment with the middle finial;.

thus the stage projects into the auditorium. In front of the stage is the special portion reserved for the Brahmins. The roof covering the stage is an independent structure, not part of the roof of the auditorium, and helps in the effective pro- jection of the sound from the stage. At the back of the stage is the green-room, connected to it by two doors. Between these two doors are placed two mizhavus or big drums, with raised seats for the drummers.

The stage is very simple. There are one or two stools meant as seats and used for other stage business. A curtain is brought in by two persons at the time of the first entry of the main characters. During a performance the stage is de- corated with palm and plantain leaves, red cloth and a cylin- drical vessel (para) filled with rice. A huge lamp, about four

143

feet high , ma de of bell m et a l is placed in front of the stage; . it is lighted wit h oil and wick s, t wo wick s fa cing the actor and one facing the a udience.

Stage manuals

In addition to the continu o us traditi on of the method o f st aging handed down from generation to generation , there

are actual stage manuals giving choreographic detail s and el aborate instructions regarding the staging of plays. These stage manuals are the Kramadipika and Attaprakaram . The

former is written in Sanskrit or Malayalam and explain s the procedure to be adopted for the staging of pl ays. It d eals with the songs, dance -step s, ra gas and various stage directions. The latter indicates acting methods , the meaning of passages in the text and is in the form of a con-

tinuous, moving story, enabling the actor to expound the text accurately. Besides , there is ~he text in Malayal a m which is to be spoken by the Vidushaka; it exp1ain s the meanings or- the Sanskrit passages spoken by the hero, and contain s th e matter which is added to produce humour. Some of the commentaries on Sanskrit dramas also conta in much useful material for the actors . The story of the scenes which are to

be enacted, is summarised in archaic, MaJayalam sentences;

this part is recited by the Nambyar at the beginning of the performance and is called Nambyarute Tamil; it is availabl e for some of the select scenes, usually staged. There is a Sanskrit text called H aJtaiakshal1a dipika, givi ng the rules of hand pose s; it is mainly ba sed on Bharat a's N atyashastra. It wa s prepared for the use of the Ch ak yars, and is used even today in the tra ining of K athakali actors. Another interest- ing work shedding li ght on the Kerala Sa nskrit stage is a Sanskrit work called Natankusa. This work severely criti- cises the Kootiyattam for taking liberties with the text and for adding unnecessary and extraneous matter.

Actors

It is said that formerly there were eighteen Chakyar

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families; but now there are only about half a dozen families which preserve the traditiop : (I) The Ammannoor Chakyar family at Irinjalakkuda, (2) The Koypa Chakyar family at Painkulam and also at Tirumoozhikkulam, (3) The Maniyoor Chakyar at Killikkurissimangalam in Lakkiddi, originally part of Talipparamba in North Kerala, (4) Kuttancheri Chakyar at Nalluvay, (5) PotiyiI Chakyar and (6) Kitangoor Chakyar. The late Cacchu Chakyar belonged to the lrinja- lakkuda family; Padmashri Natyacharya Mani Madhava Cbak ya r belongs to the Maniyur family and Painkulam Rama Chakya r, now teaching at the Kerala Kala Mandalam, be- longs to the Koypa family. Many of the Nambyar families are related to the Chakyar families through hypergamous matrimonial relationships.

Instrumental Music

The instruments used for the Kootiyattam include: (1) The mizhavu. The two drums called mizhavu are of slightly varying sizes; they are two to three feet high, and are made of copper. The mouth is tightly covered with calf skin.

Members of the Nambiyar community sit facing the audience on seats arranged near the top of the drum stand. They play on them with their hands: one of them keeps the tala, while the other plays the vinyasas, using both the palms and the fingers. For Koothu just one mizhavu is sufficient. (2) The Kuzhithalam or a pair of bronze cymbals is used for keeping the tala; it is used by the Nangyar who also chants the ver- ses for the introductory Nirvahana, the dhru va songs recited at the time of the entrance and exit of characters. (3) The Kuzhal or Kurumkuzhal, a double reed pipe, is employed to suggest the rhythm or play the jatis, and indicate the proper tunes or produce a melodious refrain in the background. (4) The ldakka or 'a tunable, double faced, pressure drum' is held by means of a piece of cloth hanging from the left shoulder of the standing drummer; the tension strings are manipulated by the left hand and the drumming is continued with a thin stick held in the right hand. This delicate and

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:sensitive drum is also played in temples, and for the Pancha- vadya type of instrumental orchestra. (5) The auspicious Shankha or conch 'shell is blown when important personali- ties appear for the first time on the stage.

Abhinaya

The abhinaya for Kootiyattam is highly conventionalised .and to a great extent follows the precepts of the Natya- .shastra. The Purappadu and the preliminary rites such as the dance sequences shed considerable light on the way the Prologue was performed in ancient Sanskrit dramas. The ·songs which invoke the deities, Ganapati, Sa raswati and Shiva are known as akkitta. Then the Nambyar fetches .sacred water from the green-room and sprinkles it on the stage, reciting the mangalashloka. These preliminary rites last for one day. The introduction of the earlier life of the hero (prior to the incidents to be actually staged) is called

. Nirvahana; it is very elaborate in its scope and continues for a few days. These earlier portions are expanded or reduced to suit the actual circumstances. The actual Kootiyattam or combined action takes place on the last three nights.

There are four types of abhinaya :

(i) Angika is the technique of using hand poses and gestures and stage movement to represent ideas. It is mainly based on the teachings of the Natyashastra. For example, in the first act of Subhadradhananjaya, Arjuna saves the heroine without knowing who she is. Her beauty casts its spell on him . He says:

rr~CfiCf~11~rrT<::~rrfH.~q&-1IfT : "

+r11:q~~ :r>i ~'~T~rel1~CfT I ~~qf<::+r~~T+lT" 'l~G:~T~l1T"lT

f~f~~fCf ~+r~Tl3f~ct +rlrr~ ir II

The actor who plays Arjuna needs four hours to explain this verse through gestures. He gazes at Subhadra, describes her,

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beginning with the hair. He stops when he comes to the eyes, and recites this verse very slowly in the raga called Arttan indicating the meaning of each word through hand gesture. Then the gestures are repeated, but the verse is not recited . Not only the number and gender of words, but. even the nature of the compounds is suggested through hand gestures. Then the verse is taken up the third time. This. time it is the syntax, the anvaya which matters. He says the words, iyarn ka, "What sort of a girl is she? What is her name? Who is her father?" His gestures indicate these queries. Then he stops. "Why should this bother me?"- Then he goes on to the words me manasam shithilayati and again expounds it in detail till he comes to Subhadramudit- ram , when he assumes the posture of Subhadra and suggests. how she enters his heart. Her eyes are beautifie d by coIly-· rium, anjanasnigdham. To explain the idea, he enac ts a story. The heroine calls her attendants to adorn her body. The entire procedure is described, from th e combing of her- hair to the tying of the anklets ro und her feet. But some-- thing has been forgotten- app lyin g the collyrium to the eyes. The Chakyar becomes the heroine, her attendants and even, Arjun a himself.

The Angikahhinaya consists not only in explaining the meanings of the text, but also in indicating the nature of the character whose role is played by the actor. Thus in Abh i- shekana taka as so on as Sugriva enters, he holds th e tree- branch es, shakes them, scratches his head, smells the tip of hi s tail to show that he is a monk ey . After he has done this be ass umes the po stu re of Sugriva, king of the monkeys. In Kootiyattam the a ct or has to confine himself to the space between hi s should ers during the hand gestures. This is un like what happens in Kathakali where the actor can stretch his arms to any length.

(ii) Vachika or verbal recitation. Here the acto r himself slowly recites his text, and then uses the language of gesture in detail.

r41

There is no regular mu sic in Kootiyattam but there are different modes of reciting the verses or even the prose pas- sages; the modes depend on various factors, such as the type of the character who is reciting them, the natu re of the situa- tion described and the sentiments conveyed. These mode s of recitation have different technical names such as Inda/a, Tarkan, Veladhooli. These are ca lled ragas, even if t hese ragas have very little to do with the ragas of Indi a n music . Some of these like Srikamaram , Poranir and Tarkan ar(;! found in the Panns of aucient Tamil music; some like Indalam, Srikanthi are ag~in preserved in modern Kathakali songs. It is very difficult to identify and distinguish these Kootiyattam ragas," the modes of recitation h ave been hand - ed down from teacher to student, without any preci se theo- retical definitions. However, there are detailed inst ruct ions

as to the usage of these recit ation ragas," Antari is used fo r narration; Veladhooli is for shouting and indica te s fear and per plexity; Srikamara suggests unexpected joy; Tarkan indi- cates anger; the us e of Veera Tarkan denotes enthusiasm ; Kaisika is for hasya and bibhatsa; Poranir is used in describ- ing the rainy season, Korakurinji is used for the words of monkeys . Indala is the normal raga for the Vidushaka. Some correlations between ragas and talas are formulated in the stage manuals. In Vachikabhinaya the Vidushaka some- times explains the significance of even the pure sounds of words uttered. In Subhadradhananjaya, the Vidushaka hears the word Sakhe Ka udinya. First he hears the sound eee," he says it is like the waves in the pond. Then khe which he

/

thinks is like the croaking of frogs in a pond. He is reminded

of his bo yhood prank of wounding frogs and finally it strikes him that it is hi s friend Arjuna calling out t o him . The hero gives prominence to those scenes where there is scope for Angikabhinaya; the Vidushaka to tho se where there is scope for Vachikabhinaya. He speaks his own lines and a lso those

of the hero and explains them.

(iii) Aharya denotes costume an d make-up. This is similar- to that of Kathakali, but simpler. The Chutti (the lining.

148

made with ri ce flour paste) which is applied round the cheek and th e chin is narrower, and the headgear is also sm a ller. Different types of make-up like Pacca, Pazhukkua, Kari and Katti are used. The magnanimous have the Paz hukkua make- up, with the face painted in a reddish colour. The haughty

types like Ravana have the Katti make-up, with a round ball painted at the tip of the nose.

• Formerly certain spectacular stage effects were achieved.

In the F ourth Act of the N agananda, thousands of strings were tied t o the artificial wings of the actor pl aying Garuda and he used to slide do wn from above the stage space. The strings were manipulated by the Nambyar In Topatisam- varna, the river were depicted by thousands of strings kept tightly in a horizontal way and the idea of ozhukal (flowing) was suggested . The suicide scene in Nagananda with Mala- yavati trying to hang herself, or the sequence in Aschary a- chudamani where Lakshman deforms Surpanakha were staged with an eye for realistic detail.

(iv) Satt vika is the representation of moods and the emo-

tions. With the help of delicate movements of the eyes, brows, lips and cheeks, but without any gestures of the hand, the actor is able to produce facial expressions which correspond to a particular mood. In this Sattvikabhinaya the Chakyar is supreme and has not been surpassed or even equalled by the Kathakali actors.

Since music and recitation are integral to the Kooti-

yatta m, talas or rhythmic patterns playa very important part in the performance. The female musician, Nangyar, keeps the tala with the help of the Kuzhitalam cymbals. The drummers, seated at the back of the stage, behind the actor, and. facing the mizhavu keep the tala; one of them merely keeps the tala and the other plays the appropriate jatis or vinyasas for the various talas to give proper effect to the

acting. Six different talas are generally used, depen- ding on the raga (mode of recitation) employed. There are

149

detailed rules prescribing p~rticular talas for particular ragas and specific occasions.

1. Ektala of four beats (matras) is used for the ragas Srikanthi, Thondu, Poranir, Kaisika, Indala, Bhinna, Pan- chama and Dukkha Gandhara. I t is used also for has),a and bibhasta rasas and for the adbhuta rasa of dhirodattha cha-

racters .

2. Dhruvatala of fourteen beats is used for the ragas Muddan, Tarkan and Korakurinji, and in adbhuta, bhayanaka, sambhoga shril'lgara (of rakshasas) and vipralambha -shringara

of dhirodattha characters.

3. Triputatala of seven beats, used when Veladhooli is the raga and for bhay anaka rasa. Triputa of slow tempo is used in Ghattantari raga; it is in a fast tempo in the case of Srikamara and PaUl'ali ragas.

4, Champatatala of eight beats is used for the instru- mental orchestra before the start of the play.

5. Thampatala of ten beats is the same as Jh a;npa of

Karnatic music.

6. Atonta of fourteen beats is used while repeating what another has said. For different types of dance pieces or modes of gait different talas have been prescribed.

Till very recently the Kootiyattam, being a rel igious art, was strictly confined to the precincts of the temples of Kerala. It was only in 1960 that the fir st public performance of the Kootiyattam outside the temple precincts was staged at Calicut before a select audience invited by All India Radio. A portion from Act One of the Subhadradhananjaya was staged by Painkulam Rama Chakyar and his party. I made a preliminary survey of Kootiyattam in 1960; this sur-

vey was published in the Samskrita Ranga Annual, II. Other public performances of the Kootiyattam followed-at the

]50

Kalamandalam in 1962 a rranged by Dr. Clifford Jones of the University of Pennsylvania; a show was arranged in Madras under the auspices of the Samskrita Ranga in 1963, and in New Delhi under the auspices of the Sangeet Nataka Aka- demi and the Pederewski Foundation. It was Natyacharya Mani Madhava Chakyar and his party who gave the perfor- mances at Madras and at New Delhi. Enthusiastic enco'u- ragement was given to this activity by scholars like Dr . V. Raghann. My paper on Kootiyattam was republi shed as a booklet by the Sangeet Nataka Akademi. The Madras University produced a M. Litt thesis on Kootiyattam and another doctoral thesis was written in Poona. In 1966 a seminar on Kootiyattam was arranged at Cheruthurutty; it was sponsored jointly by the Kerala Kalamandalam and the American Institute of Indian Studies, on the enthusiastic initiative of Dr. Clifford Jones, the well-known Western scholar of art and theatre history. Mani Madhava Chakyar has prepared a scholarly work in Malayalam on the theory and practice of the Kootiyattam, and it is to be published by the Kerala Kalamandalam, \-vhere a department of Kooti- yattam was started in 1967, with Painkulam Rama Chakyar as pro(essor. Dr. Clifford Jones is now in India preparing a documentary film and a descriptive monograph on the technique and practice of this one surviving form of the classical Sanskrit-based dramatic tradition. The Kerala Kalamandalam and other scholars in the field are co-opera- ting with him in this effort and it is to be hoped that more light will be shed on our ancient drama as a result of this awakening of interest in the subject.

Footnote to Chapter XI .

L Kootiyattam is also spell as Kutiyattam or Kudiyattam.

Painkuiam Rama Chakyar as Ravana perfo'rming the lifting

of the Kai/asa Mountain in Abhishekanatakam

Sthapana Sutradhara' perform/ng)the Nityakriya. Two Mizh~vu' drums and the players

Malli Madhva Chakyar in Asokavanikanka in Ascharachudamani

The Yakshagana of Karnataka

KamiJlabhupa and. his 'da,ughteii Rati

CHAPTER XII

THE YAKSHAGANA OF KARNATAKA

-K. Shivram Karanlh

The Kannada-speak)ng area of India, usually called Karnataka, has a rich theatre form known as 'Yakshagana.' ln earlier times it used to be called 'Bhagavatara ata,' "Dashavatara ata,' or simply 'Bayalata.' In Kannada 'ata' means a play . Originally this form of theatre used to deal with the tales of Bhagavan Krishna and hence the name 'Bhagavatara ata.' Later on, it began to depict tales of the ten jncarnations of Lord Vishnu; hence the name 'Dashavatara ata.' Being an open-air theatre, it came to be called ·'Bayalata.' The nomenclature 'Yakshagana' came from a 'special style of music which accompanies these plays. It is .a very ancient style, for there is mention of this style in Kannada literature of the tenth and twelfth centuries. The Chandraprabha Purana (1189) makes mention of the form. Nagachandra's Mallinatha Purana (1105) refers to Yaksha- :gaDa as "pleasing to Laksmi who stands in the .lotus." In the sixteenth century Kavi Ratnakar Varni speaks of Yakkalagana in his Bharateshavaibhava. Since he belongs 10 the region of South Kanara, it may be surmised that the Yakshagana form was widespread by that time.

Yakshagana embraced in earlier times a form of music played before royal personages. Later on, owing to the