DISCUSSION 1
When I’m explaining something to you, if I’m being long-winded, and twisty in a non-productive way, I could make you feel vaguely insulted. And you’d have a right to be.
—George Saunders
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the common purposes behind an expository essay.
2. Describe the proper and improper use of elements such as point of view, structure, and tone.
3. Differentiate between the defini- tion, classification, and description of expository essays.
4. Recognize and know when to use informative writing.
5. Recognize and know when to use reflective writing.
6. Plan an expository essay by under- standing the patterns involved in comparison-and-contrast writing.
7. Plan an expository essay by under- standing the patterns involved in cause-and-effect writing.
8. Plan an expository essay by under- standing the patterns involved in analytical writing.
8Exposition
John Fedele/Blend Images/SuperStock
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Expository Writing
When you browse newspapers or magazines, surf the Web for information, read business reports and memos, look through a cookbook or catalog, or follow instructions to assem- ble a child’s toy, you are viewing examples of exposition. Exposition conveys information or explains a subject to readers. It is often assigned in college to expose you to new sub- jects and to allow you to demonstrate your understanding of these subjects. You will find exposition and expository writing not only in college classes but also at the workplace and in your personal life.
Technical writing and business and professional writing are also specialized categories of expository writing that involve communicating complex information to users for specific purposes. You will not be expected to produce many of these types of materials in col- lege unless you take specific courses in these subjects. However, whenever you are asked to prepare instructions, step-by-step directions to perform an operation, or procedures for accomplishing a task, remember to apply the elements of exposition. The pages that follow will discuss key features of expository writing, including their conventions, and will offer detailed information about specific forms of expository writing most typical to the college classroom—informative writing, reflective writing, comparison-and-contrast essays, cause-and-effect essays, and analytical papers.
8.1 Understanding Expository Writing
Exposition, or expository writing, is writing with the purpose of describing, explain-ing, or analyzing. It is one of the most common types of writing you will encounter in your college courses. Many of your college assignments will require you to read exposition, to write expository papers, or to use exposition for sections of a paper. In fact, this text is an example of exposition. The primary purpose of exposition is to share infor- mation. Exposition is used for a variety of specific reasons, some of which are listed below:
• Inform readers about a topic • Clarify or explain a theory, concept, or idea • Define terms and their uses • Analyze an issue • Instruct readers in how to perform a task • Objectively describe an item • Explore or evaluate ideas • Summarize ideas • Interpret a subject so that readers understand it.
Because most issues must be discussed or explained before they can be argued or researched, exposition will also be a component of many combination papers you will write in your college courses. Before you share a personal experience (personal paper), take a position on an issue (persuasive paper), or conduct research to learn more about a subject (research paper), you must usually explain the subject, define relevant terms, and provide background information about your topic. The elements of exposition are impor- tant to success in all your college courses.
Recall that we have been using soccer as an example throughout this book. In the sample you will read in Writing Sample: Excerpt from Sample Student Expository Paper, note that,
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Expository Writing
Writing Sample: Excerpt from Sample Student Expository Paper
Over past decades, the sport of competitive soccer has taken the world by storm. In Europe, fanatic “football” fans make headlines for their passionate support of local teams. And in America, thou- sands of parents register children for youth soccer clubs each year. While many factors influence how successful any given team can be, by far the most important factor is teamwork. Using soccer as an example, this paper will explore what it takes to work successfully as a team, and how individual members can work together to achieve a common goal. It is clear that unity, confidence, and practice are critical components of successful teamwork within the sport of soccer.
A sense of unity and selflessness is, above all, critical to successful teamwork. A common saying regarding teamwork is that there is no “I” in the word “team,” and this mindset is essential when it comes to soccer. As Mia Hamm, former professional player for the United States women’s national soccer team once said, “I am a member of a team, and I rely on the team, I defer to it and sacrifice for it, because the team, not the individual, is the ultimate champion” (Hamm, 1994, para 3). In a sport where countries vie to compete for the famous World Cup, individual team members must put their country and their team first. For every soccer match played there may be up to eleven players on the field, and “a match may not start if either team has fewer than seven players” (FIFA, n.d., para 1). Relying on the team as a unit, rather than individual players, is the only way that a team can hope to win each game.
Team confidence is a second key to a soccer team’s success. While a team may be talented, it is only if they have confidence in one another’s abilities that winning becomes possible. Soccer history is full of stories of teams that beat the odds against them. In 1950, a ragtag American team played against England for the World Cup. According to an article in the New York Times, the English had invented the game of soccer “and were 3-1 favorites to win the tournament. The Americans were 500-1 long shots” (Longman, 2009, para. 6). However, the American team shocked the soccer world by winning the game with a 1-0 score. A more recent victory occurred when the English Liverpool club won a game against Italy’s Juventus club. Player Steven Gerrard said of the win, “we were massive under- dogs, so to beat them was fantastic” (Gerrard, 2005, para. 1). The above examples illustrate how confidence can benefit teamwork, resulting in successes that no one thought possible.
. . .
References FIFA. (n.d.) Main website. Retrieved from http://www.fifa.com
Gerrard, S. (2005). Quotation. Retrieved from http://www.icelebz.com/quotes/steven_gerrard/
Hamm, M. (1994). Quotation. Retrieved from http://www.values.com/inspirational-sayings -billboards/56-Passion
Longman, J. (2009, December 9). How a ‘band of no-hopers’ forged U.S. soccer’s finest day. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/10/sports/ soccer/10soccer.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
rather than using her own experiences as the basis for the paper, the student uses histori- cal examples and quotations from outside sources to support her thesis about teamwork and soccer. The sample paper below is an excerpt consisting of the introduction and first two body paragraphs of the paper.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Expository Writing
Many of the essays you will be assigned in college courses call for an expository paper. When you are asked to write a brief informative paper, to respond to readings, to ana- lyze or critique an issue, to compare and contrast theories or points of view, to explain a subject, or to explore causes and effects, you should use exposition to construct your essay. Writing in Action: Sample Expository Paper Assignments lists some sample expository writing assignments from actual courses. Note that each of these assignments asks you to share information, not to give your personal opinion of the issue. This characteristic should alert you that an expository response is needed.
Writing in Action: Sample Expository Paper Assignments
Key words and action verbs are underlined in the following examples:
• Identify two different cultures in the world and examine their traditions. Based on the behaviors, customs, and beliefs of each of the two cultures, discuss how personalities and identities are formed and shared within the two different cultures.
• Compose a two- to three-page essay using examples from two or more works read during the week. Reflect upon how literature reflects communities. You do not need resources outside the course materials for this essay; however, you must cite the works from the texts.
• A scholarly study of literature connects or compares works from different genres by using one literary element. This is your assignment: Find a way to connect or compare one literary work to two others.
• Compare and contrast the thought and philosophy of two philosophers mentioned in the text. Write an eight- to ten-page paper in which you address a brief history of the philosophers and discuss the view of each philosopher on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, free will and/or determinism, personal identity, and the existence of God.
• Write an essay in which you summarize the stereotypes associated with the following groups and provide an explanation as to whether these stereotypes are positive, negative, or both: (1) politicians, (2) tattooed persons, (3) feminists, and (4) senior citizens.
• Write a five- to seven-page paper in which you discuss the advantages and disadvantages of bilingual education in elementary school classrooms.
• Write an eight-page reflective paper in which you demonstrate your understanding of the reading assignments and the implications of your new knowledge in this course. Integrate your readings and class discussions into your own work and life experience. Include explanations and examples from your previous experience. The purpose of the reflective paper is for you to culminate the learning achieved in the course by describing your understanding and application of knowledge in the philosophy of human conduct.
Tone and Language Because expository writing deals with factual information, it should be devoid of emo- tion. Make sure to use formal language and to choose words that have clear, descriptive, nonemotional denotative meanings. This does not mean that your writing must be boring. Expository writing is about serious subjects, but it can also be rich with details, engage the reader, and be interesting to read.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Expository Writing
Point of View Expository writing should be objective and unbiased. Unlike personal or persuasive writing, your expository paper should not reveal your opinion or judgment of the infor- mation. Your task is simply to present it as fairly and accurately as you can. Expository writing focuses on the subject matter, so it generally uses a third-person point of view (he, she, they, the subject, the author). This focus can be lost when the point of view is shifted to the writer by using first person (I, me, my, our) or to the reader by using second person (you, your). However, when you write information that instructs someone how to perform a task, you may use a second-person viewpoint (you) or a viewpoint where the second person is understood—for example, an instruction directed to the reader, such as “[You] Open the folder.”
Structure and Supporting Ideas While expository papers generally follow the best practices laid out in Chapter 5, the sec- tions below give additional details on how to structure a successful expository paper.
Thesis Statement Remember that, like all well-written papers, expository papers must have a clear thesis. Make sure that your paper has a focus and a primary idea you want to get across to your readers. Here are some sample expository thesis statements and stronger, revised versions of each:
First draft thesis: Many factors contributed to the rise of the suburbs, especially the development of the automobile.
Revised thesis: The development of commuter trains and the automobile, along with the desire for people to be outside the city, contributed to the rise of the sub- urbs in America.
First draft thesis: Cheese is primarily made by curdling milk and then by giving it time to age.
Revised thesis: Cheese is made by a process of curdling milk, separating the curd from the whey, and drying and packing the curd, followed by an aging process. Various lengths of the aging process create different tastes, and even the scents in the room where the aging occurs can be used to impart flavor into the cheese.
First draft thesis: According to Virginia Woolf, in A Room of One’s Own, women must be granted the proper space to think and write.
Revised thesis: Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own suggests that economic, social, and academic issues limit most women’s ability to write in their time.
Paragraph Organization and Transitions A well-written expository essay is organized in the sequence in which events occur, the order in which ideas should be considered, or the priority of the items discussed. When you use exposition to provide directions or to write instructions or procedures, it
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Conventions of Expository Writing
is imperative that you arrange the information in chronological order, the order in which tasks are performed, to ensure that the reader follows them correctly. Use of transitions is also critical in expository writing to ensure that readers do not get lost in your explana- tions and can follow along with your presentation of material. Signal word such as first, after, next, last, and for example are especially useful for this purpose. For example, if you are sharing information from an article you read in a magazine, and you have three main points to make, use signal words like these underlined terms to let readers know when you move from one main point to another: “The first point stated in the article is . . . . Sec- ond, the article suggests that . . . . Finally, the article recommends . . . .”
Short expository papers are read sequentially from beginning to end and do not usually contain headings, which are short phrases that separate and organize sections of the paper. However, with longer or more complex exposition, headings can be useful to help readers quickly and easily find information they need. In longer papers, use headings whenever you believe they will help readers stay on track with the information you are presenting.
Supporting Details Finally, remember that when you present information, you must support your state- ments. Effective exposition supports ideas with facts, explanations, details, and examples to ensure that those ideas are clear to readers. When you state a main idea in your paper, make sure to develop that idea by following your statement with supporting ideas that are logically organized to make them clear and understandable. Unless a statement is a well-known fact, you must go on to explain that statement and support it in some way.
8.2 Conventions of Expository Writing
Exposition often incorporates conventions, or specific writing methods, that can help make your writing accurate, complete, clear, and focused. Use these conventions, as appropriate, in your expository writing to improve the effectiveness of your papers. Expository essays are generally written in the third person, unless your instructor specifi- cally asks you to do otherwise. Expository essays are analytical essays and are asking for objective interpretations—that is, interpretations based on facts, details, or the language of texts you are asked to analyze.
Definition Because information you present must be understandable to your readers, defining terms is particularly important in expository writing. Defining terms is a way to explain what a term means by labeling it and/or providing synonyms. In your expository writing, define any terms that you anticipate your readers might not understand. In a complex docu- ment, you might include these definitions in a vocabulary list or a glossary at the end of a document. For a shorter document, weave your definitions in the text in the paragraphs themselves, as we did above when we defined the word conventions. If you believe a term or a concept might still be misunderstood, even with the definition, include an example to show the reader how the term is used in a sentence.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Informative Writing
Classification Classification is a method of organizing information to help readers understand it; to classify, we group items in a category with other items that share similar characteristics and state the essential features of the item. For example, if you wanted to define the Microsoft PowerPoint™ software program, you might classify it by stating that it is a presentation development tool (the category) that contains background templates (essential feature) to allow users to create a presentation with a unified look (essential feature).
Description Description is “painting pictures with words,” which allows the reader to visualize the content of the essay. When we describe something, we list its characteristics and features or give an example to help illustrate it and create a mental picture of the item in the reader’s mind. Description is often used with narration to help make information clear and vivid; however, it is also used in exposi- tory writing to clarify ideas and to help readers visualize an item clearly in their minds. By using description and including specific details that appeal to the reader’s five senses and support or explain what we say, we can help the reader understand the information more clearly.
8.3 Informative Writing
In some courses, particularly those in business and management, you will be asked to prepare reports or to share information about a project. This kind of a report would require you to use informative writing, a type of expository writing that provides the reader with facts about a particular topic, such as a description of how something works.
The Purpose of Informative Writing Informative writing is meant to educate the reader and answer the questions “how” or “why” about the given topic. This type of writing usually involves more than one subject and concerns complex issues that must be described and discussed in detail. Informa- tive reports may require that you perform research and then share your research find- ings in the report. In general, informative writing does not include persuasive elements. However, some reports, such as recommendation reports and proposals, are persuasive in nature. Many reports are informative and are designed to provide information to help organizational decision making. These informative reports should be written as exposi- tory documents.
Ingram Publishing In choosing your words carefully, you can create an image for the reader to visualize.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
Understanding Informative Writing You can recognize an informative writing assignment because the assignment will ask you to describe the details of a topic or explain to the reader how a process works, such as in the example below:
Example: Describe in detail the process of hydraulic fracturing, or “frack- ing,” and its effect on groundwater. Remember to include factual infor- mation about the process as well as accurate data about the effect on groundwater.
Notice that the assignment does not ask you to persuade or advise the reader, but to pro- vide factual details only. This is a sign that you will need to write an informative report to answer the prompt.
Structure of Informative Papers Informative writing can be of any length, from one or two pages to several hundred pages. Keep in mind that not all types of informative papers will require a formal thesis. For example, if you were to write a paper describing how to build a piece of furniture, your opening paragraph would not need to include a thesis. Such a paper does not require you to make a claim or persuade the reader, but to explain the steps in a process.
However, there are some types of informative papers that will require a thesis. Usually, this will be a combination paper, such as an informative analysis paper or an informative persuasive paper. These types of papers ask you to give factual details supported by pri- mary or secondary research, and then to analyze those details or persuade the reader to accept your interpretation of the factual information.
8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
A comparison-and-contrast paper examines both similarities and differences in the same paper. Comparison and contrast are two sides of the same coin. When you compare subjects, you show how they are alike; when you contrast them, you show how they are different. In effective comparison-and-contrast papers, though, one or the other is generally the focus and has more emphasis.
The Purpose of Comparison-and-Contrast Writing Comparison and contrast are useful in helping readers understand issues. They can also be helpful in evaluating options, narrowing down choices, and making decisions. Often without realizing it, we use these patterns every day, for decisions small and large. When we decide whether we want to have a blueberry muffin or an apple for breakfast, choose whether to watch the news or a reality show on television, select a brand of soda, or determine which university to attend to complete our college degree, we are using com- parison and contrast and making decisions from among various alternatives. We may not
Top Photo Group/Thinkstock Comparing and contrasting ideas can help your reader understand a complex issue.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
consciously weigh all the pros and cons of each alternative before making the decision; however, some factors usually sway our decision one way or the other. For example, we may decide to have the muffin on the basis of taste or select the apple based on calorie count.
Understanding Comparison-and- Contrast Writing You can recognize a comparison-and-contrast assignment because the assignment will ask you to examine two or more issues. It may not specifi- cally use the words compare or contrast. Instead, it may ask you to discuss similarities and differ- ences, advantages and disadvantages, pros and cons, or the relative merits of one subject over another. It might also use comparative words as in the following comparative assignment:
Example: Your manager is considering the purchase of a new printer for the office and has asked you to prepare a report that discusses the features of available printers that will help her determine which brand and model would be the most cost effective to purchase.
The word most is the comparative word that gives you the clue that a comparison-and- contrast paper is required.
To use comparison and contrast, the subjects you choose must have some similarities, or comparison is difficult, if not impossible. You have probably heard the expression, “You can’t compare them; it is like comparing apples and oranges.” Actually, this saying is untrue; you can compare apples and oranges because they have some common features. They are both edible, they are both fruits, and they are both juicy. It would be much more difficult to compare apples and bicycles or oranges and rubber bands.
Let us look at the elements of effective comparison and contrast and discuss how to incor- porate them in any comparison-and-contrast papers you write.
Find Commonalities and Differences An expository comparison-and-contrast paper simply presents and examines factors or issues to help the reader make his or her own decision about an issue. When you compare and/or contrast, your job is to consciously think about the factors that might influence a decision, to discuss these factors, and to weigh them or comment on them in the paper. In a comparison-and-contrast paper, you do not necessarily make the decision yourself or attempt to influence the reader one way or the other. If you do so, your paper will be a combination of expository and persuasive writing.
Understanding Informative Writing You can recognize an informative writing assignment because the assignment will ask you to describe the details of a topic or explain to the reader how a process works, such as in the example below:
Example: Describe in detail the process of hydraulic fracturing, or “frack- ing,” and its effect on groundwater. Remember to include factual infor- mation about the process as well as accurate data about the effect on groundwater.
Notice that the assignment does not ask you to persuade or advise the reader, but to pro- vide factual details only. This is a sign that you will need to write an informative report to answer the prompt.
Structure of Informative Papers Informative writing can be of any length, from one or two pages to several hundred pages. Keep in mind that not all types of informative papers will require a formal thesis. For example, if you were to write a paper describing how to build a piece of furniture, your opening paragraph would not need to include a thesis. Such a paper does not require you to make a claim or persuade the reader, but to explain the steps in a process.
However, there are some types of informative papers that will require a thesis. Usually, this will be a combination paper, such as an informative analysis paper or an informative persuasive paper. These types of papers ask you to give factual details supported by pri- mary or secondary research, and then to analyze those details or persuade the reader to accept your interpretation of the factual information.
8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
A comparison-and-contrast paper examines both similarities and differences in the same paper. Comparison and contrast are two sides of the same coin. When you compare subjects, you show how they are alike; when you contrast them, you show how they are different. In effective comparison-and-contrast papers, though, one or the other is generally the focus and has more emphasis.
The Purpose of Comparison-and-Contrast Writing Comparison and contrast are useful in helping readers understand issues. They can also be helpful in evaluating options, narrowing down choices, and making decisions. Often without realizing it, we use these patterns every day, for decisions small and large. When we decide whether we want to have a blueberry muffin or an apple for breakfast, choose whether to watch the news or a reality show on television, select a brand of soda, or determine which university to attend to complete our college degree, we are using com- parison and contrast and making decisions from among various alternatives. We may not
Top Photo Group/Thinkstock Comparing and contrasting ideas can help your reader understand a complex issue.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
You might begin the prewriting process of your comparison-and-contrast paper by cre- ating a list or a table of the features the subjects have in common and the features they have that are different. For example, with our printer comparison above, you might ask yourself: What printers are available? What features do the available printers have in common? What are the major differences among them? You might consider features such as the cost of the toner cartridge, the paper size accepted, the printing speed, the printing volume or capacity, and the availability of a preview screen or of tech support. Table 8.1 illustrates a table constructed to show the similarities and differences in the printers that were researched.
Table 8.1: Example of a comparison-and-contrast table
Printer A Printer B Printer C Printer D
Purchase Price $199 $150 $299 $350
Basic Features
Type of printer Laser Laser Laser Laser
Color or monochrome
Monochrome Monochrome Monochrome Monochrome
Connection USB, Ethernet USB, Ethernet, wireless
USB, parallel, Ethernet
USB, parallel, serial, Ethernet
Max. paper size Legal Legal Legal Letter
Speed and Capacity
Rated speed 30 pp. per min 23 pp. per min 25 pp. per min 33 pp. per min
Print volume 25,000 pp. per month
15,000 pp. per month
11,000 pp. per month
25,000 pp. per month
Paper capacity 300 sheets 250 sheets 150 sheets 200 sheets
Special Features
Duplexing Yes No No Yes
LCD preview screen
No Yes No Yes
Cost per Page 2.7¢ 1.8¢ 2.8¢ 1.6¢
Cost of Toner and Number of Prints
$62 2,300 pp.
$46 2,600 pp.
$55 2,000 pp.
$56 3,500 pp.
Tech Support With purchase of service pkg. ($150/year)
Toll-free number weekdays only 8–5 EST
Toll-free number available 24/7
With purchase of service pkg. ($99/year)
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
Once you have created your list or table of similarities and differences, you must examine the lists and choose a basis for comparison. Our printers, for example, have many fea- tures, but not all of them will be important or appropriate for your paper. Your assignment asks you to focus on which printer would be the most cost effective. A feature such as the availability of a preview screen, for example, may not be important for a decision based on cost effectiveness.
The basis of comparison that you decide to discuss in your paper will be the similari- ties and/or differences among the printers that are important to the purchase decision. In other words, which printer features must be considered if you are making the decision based on cost effectiveness? If the available printers are very similar, you might briefly mention the common features they share and focus your paper on exploring the contrasts in more depth. On the other hand, if subjects are very different, the similarities might be the most interesting and the most important to explore.
One way to approach the basis of comparison is to first set some criteria for that compari- son. Your assignment asks you to determine cost effectiveness, so you know that the ini- tial price of the printers is an important criterion. Because printers can range in cost from below $100 to more than $1,000, you might decide to use printers under $400 as a basis for comparison, as we did in our example. If so, make sure to explain your reason for this choice in your paper.
Let us say that you work for a law firm, and you know that your company must be able to print on both letter-sized and legal-sized paper. It would probably not be cost effective to buy a second printer just for the legal-sized documents, so a printer that can print on both letter- and legal-sized paper will be an important criterion. Use issues such as these to narrow down the features of the items you are comparing into the ones you think will be most important when making the purchase decision. To help you construct your paper, you might list, highlight, or circle the features on the printed material from your research that you intend to compare and contrast in your paper.
Structure of Comparison-and-Contrast Papers Like all well-written papers, your comparison-and-contrast paper should have a clear and focused thesis statement. Your thesis statement should be an answer to a meaningful interpretive question you have about a text, experiment, policy, or other scenario. Write down this thesis statement as a tentative idea of your primary point. In our printer exam- ple, the thesis statement was suggested in the assignment itself when it asked you to focus on cost effectiveness. Some comparison-and-contrast expository papers are also combina- tion papers that ask you to formulate an argument toward the end of the paper after you have carefully assessed the main features of each primary concept.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
Select an Organizational Arrangement Comparison-and-contrast papers are most often arranged in one of two different ways: a block arrangement or a point-by-point arrangement. A block arrangement mentions all the features about one subject before it moves on to another subject. Let us go back to our printer example and imagine that you found three printers that meet the criteria you developed. A block arrangement outline for a discussion of the features of these three printers might look something like Figure 8.1. Notice that all the features for printer A that you selected for your basis of comparison are discussed before you discuss printers B and C. Remember that all features you mentioned regarding printer A must also be mentioned when you construct the sections of the paper relating to printers B and C.
Figure 8.1: Example of a block arrangement
A second method of arranging a comparison-and-contrast paper is called the point-by- point arrangement. When you compare or contrast subjects point by point, you choose one feature at a time and alternate between the subjects when discussing that feature. For example, you might take the feature of a low cost per page. You might first explain that the cost per page is based on the cost of the printer cartridge and the number of pages printed. Then, you would discuss the cost per page for printer A, printer B, and printer C. After you have discussed this feature as it relates to all three printers, you would then move on to the second feature you want to compare, printing on both letter- and legal-sized paper, and compare this feature on printers A, B, and C. Continue this way until you have com- pared and contrasted each feature you outlined in your thesis statement. Review Figure 8.2 to see how a paper with a point-by-point arrangement would be constructed.
I. Introduction
II. Printer A A. Purchase Price B. Speed and Capacity C. Cost per Page D. Cost of Toner and Number of Prints E. Tech Support
III. Printer B A. Purchase Price B. Speed and Capacity C. Cost per Page D. Cost of Toner and Number of Prints E. Tech Support
IV. Printer C A. Purchase Price B. Speed and Capacity C. Cost per Page D. Cost of Toner and Number of Prints E. Tech Support
V. Conclusion
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Comparison and Contrast Writing
Figure 8.2: Example of a point-by-point arrangement
The point-by-point arrangement is preferable if your paper is lengthy or if the subject matter is complex. With lengthy or complex subjects, a point-by-point comparison makes it less likely that your readers will become lost or confused during the comparisons and contrasts.
Every writing situation is different, and you may see some professional essays that combine comparison and contrast in the same paper. You may choose this combination approach yourself if you have a complex issue to discuss. However, don’t try to combine the patterns unless you are extremely careful not to confuse yourself or your readers with this combined approach. You would need to use very careful signal words and transi- tional sentences to make the format of your paper—and your reasons for structuring it in this way—clear.
Make the Comparison or Contrast Apparent to Readers When you are comparing or contrasting items, do not just list the features of one item and then the features of another. Instead, show how the items are related to one another. Remember to use transitions, which we discussed in Chapter 5, to indicate the relation- ship among items. See how much easier the information is to understand and how much better the writing flows in the second example below when transitions are inserted to show the relationships among the various printers:
Poor example: Printer A prints 30 pages per minute and 25,000 pages per month. Printer B prints 23 pages per minute and 15,000 pages per month.
I. Introduction
II. First Difference: Purchase Price A. Printer A B. Printer B C. Printer C III. Second Difference: Speed and Capacity A. Printer A B. Printer B C. Printer C
IV. Third Difference: Cost per Page A. Printer A B. Printer B C. Printer C
V. Fourth Difference: Cost of Toner and Number of Prints A. Printer A B. Printer B C. Printer C
VI. Fifth Difference: Tech Support A. Printer A B. Printer B C. Printer C
VII. Conclusion
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Cause-and-Effect Writing
Printer C prints 25 pages per minute and 11,000 pages per month. Printer D prints 30 pages per minute and 25,000 pages per month.
Better example: Both Printers A and D print 30 pages per minute and pro- duce 25,000 pages per month. By contrast, printer B prints only 23 pages per minute and 15,000 pages per month, while printer C prints a little faster at 25 pages per minute but produces the fewest prints at only 11,000 pages per month.
Table 8.2 shows a list of transitions that indicate similarity (comparison) and difference (contrast).
Table 8.2: Signal words that indicate similar or different items
Words that show similarity/comparison like, likewise, similar, similarly, in the same way, just as, for example, such, at the same time, along these lines, by analogy, comparably, both, all, accordingly, in comparison, analogous, comparable
Words that show difference/contrast however, unlike, on the other hand, but, yet, still, nor, though, while, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, in contrast, by contrast, although, albeit, instead, rather, conversely, otherwise, in spite of, alternately, alternatively, more than, most, fewer than, fewest
The following link contains an excellent example of a comparison-and-contrast essay. As you read this essay, see if you can identify the elements of an effective comparison-and- contrast essay that we have discussed in this chapter: http://www.hillsdale.edu/news /imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=2009&month=02.
8.5 Cause-and-Effect Writing
Another pattern of exposition that you may be required to use in your college writ-ing is a cause-and-effect paper, which explores the relationship between underly-ing factors and influences and their consequences. Cause-and-effect writing allows us to identify or to speculate about the reasons why something happened, to understand the results of a particular action, or both. The cause is the action that made the situation occur, and the effect is the result of that action. Cause-and-effect relationships, however, are rarely that simple.
The Purpose of Cause-and-Effect Writing Cause-and-effect writing explores, attempts to explain, or investigates probable causes and probable effects. It does not attempt to prove anything; you may explore various causes, or the degree to which various causes led to something. If your paper argues for a
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Cause-and-Effect Writing
particular point of view and attempts to convince readers that your viewpoint is correct, you have moved from expository writing to persuasive writing. Note that an assignment may be a combination paper that asks you to explore causes and effects and then to develop an interpretation of the primary causes toward the end of the paper—this would mean that you develop an argument after addressing a variety of causes and effects.
Thus, cause-and-effect writing is often used as a preface to persuasive and argumenta- tive writing. Before you can persuade someone to accept your point of view or convince him or her to take some action you recommend, you must first give them reasons why they should do so. Just as an attorney must argue in court and provide evidence to support that argument to attempt to prove that someone committed a crime, you must also make a strong and compel- ling argument and provide sufficient evidence when you attempt to prove a cause-and-effect relationship between two issues.
Mastering the skills of this pattern of exposition is essential for effective persuasive writing. Click on the link below and read the sample essay that discusses U.S. health care:
ht t p://w w w.h i l l sda le.edu/news/i mpr i m i s/ archive/issue.asp?year=2009&month=03.
Can you identify the section of the essay that is written using the cause-and-effect pattern and the point at which the author switches to persuasive writing?
Understanding Cause-and-Effect Writing Any essay that asks you to investigate, illuminate, or assess contributory causes of some particular effect qualifies as a cause-and-effect paper. A paper may ask you to identify the particular causes leading up to a historical event. A different assignment may ask you to discuss and evaluate the factors that contributed to a particular environmental change. A more typical assignment for an English course may ask you to identify the reasons for a particular change in a character.
Causal Analysis Often you will observe a problem or situation, and you will want to determine its cause or causes. Typically, there may be several underlying causes to a problem, and if you write an essay about cause and effect, you will decide what the main causes are that contribute to the scenario you are examining. Let us say, for example, that you notice the grass in your backyard is turning brown, and you want to know why. Finding causes is similar to creat- ing links in a chain. If you can connect one link in the chain to the next link and the next
Exactostock/SuperStock A cause-and-effect pattern may be used to support a persuasive paper arguing that smoking causes lung cancer.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Cause-and-Effect Writing
and the next, eventually you will have a fairly strong chain (and a fairly clear picture of the cause of a problem). In fact, looking for causes is often referred to as creating a causal chain (Figure 8.3). Follow these steps to create this causal chain:
1. Begin with the observed effect: the brown grass. 2. Speculate on possible factors that might have caused the problem. 3. Assess the probability of each of these possibilities or investigate them one by
one to attempt to eliminate them. 4. Conclude with the probable cause.
Figure 8.3: A causal chain
To elaborate on the example of the suburbs mentioned earlier in the chapter, another pos- sible causal analysis assignment could ask you to consider why suburbs proliferated in America. In the 1910s, the development of streetcar lines enabled people to move out of cities. In the 1920s, rapid expansion of automobile use and availability combined with the decentralization of manufacturing (manufacturers moved out of cities to cheaper areas where they could build bigger plants) contributed to the development of the suburbs. After World War II, the biggest suburban expansion in the United States was due to con- sumer demand, marriages, and the baby boom.
Forms of Cause-and-Effect Relationships You can recognize cause-and-effect writing assignments because they will ask you to dis- cuss or explain the reasons why something occurred or contain the key words/phrases if . . . then, as a result of . . . , as a consequence of . . . , the reasons for . . . , therefore, or because. Following is a link to a professional cause-and-effect essay that uses one of the forms of cause-and-effect relationships listed in Table 8.3: http://faculty.ucc.edu/english-chewning /catton.htm. Can you identify the relationship the writer employs?
Effect Possible Factors Probability/Test Reason Probable Cause
Brown grass Lack of water Insects Lack of nutrients Fertilizer problem
No Unlikely No Possible
Water timer checked Insecticide applied Fertilizer applied Problem throughout entire lawn; began shortly after fertilizer was applied
Fertilizer problem*
* Note that, at this point, the fertilizer problem is only the probable cause. Until you have an expert check a sample of the grass, you do not know for sure if the fertilizer was the actual cause of the problem.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Cause-and-Effect Writing
Table 8.3: Types of Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Cause-and-Effect Relationship
Example
Single cause with multiple effects
Single cause: Walmart opens a superstore in a community.
Multiple effects: new jobs, more selection and convenience for shoppers, increased sales tax revenue for community, loss of business for local stores, loss of jobs with competitors, and loss of parking revenue for city downtown area
Single effect with multiple causes
Single effect: You own a local restaurant, and business is slow lately.
Multiple causes: families trying to save money by eating at home, people want more nutritious food choices than you offer, outside family activities make it too difficult for families to eat together at the same time, an E. coli health problem at another restaurant has kept them away from restaurants, and a new restaurant opened down the street
Multiple causes and multiple effects
Multiple causes: historical disputes among people in the Middle East, political differences, religious differences, outside interference by other nations, fringe political groups, changing economic conditions, disputes over land and natural resources
Multiple effects: Palestinian and Israeli conflict, political issues in Middle East countries, growth of militarism, growth in power and personal wealth of the elite, rise in Islamic militancy, global struggle to control access to oil reserves
Series of events The clearest example of a series of events is the poem that Benjamin Franklin made famous by placing it in his book Poor Richard’s Almanac, which shows that a seemingly minor event can lead to significant consequences:
“For Want of a Nail” For want of a nail the shoe was lost. For want of a shoe the horse was lost. For want of a horse the rider was lost. For want of a rider the battle was lost. For want of a battle the kingdom was lost. And all for the want of a horseshoe nail. (Hoyt & Roberts, 2009)
When you write a cause-and-effect paper, you are attempting to understand the relation- ship between decision, actions, and events and their causes and effects. It is important to recognize, however, that simply because two events occurred near each other in time, one did not necessarily cause the other.
For instance, perhaps a traveler returned from an airplane flight across country and, a few days later, came down with the flu. If that traveler assumes, without any evidence, that the airplane flight caused her flu, she would be guilty of an error known as the post hoc
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Analytical Writing
ergo propter hoc fallacy. The term post hoc ergo propter hoc is a Latin phrase that means “after this therefore because of this,” and a fallacy is a logical error or a mistake in rea- soning. If two events happen next to each other in time, we cannot simply assume that because one event happened after another, the first event was the cause of the second. The traveler might speculate that the flu could have been caused by a bug she picked up on the flight, but it might also have been a coincidence that the flight and the flu occurred near each other in time.
Structure of Cause-and-Effect Papers Like a comparison-and-contrast paper, cause-and-effect writing can be structured in one of two ways. After constructing your introduction, the first option is to begin the body of the paper with causes, to discuss them thoroughly, and then move on to discussing effects. For more complex situations, you will likely have to choose a few main causes and just a few of the most significant effects. A second option is to discuss a cause and its effects thoroughly and then move on to other causes and other effects, if necessary. This method may only work if the causes are very separate from one another—but if the causes are directly linked to one another, it will likely be more effective to discuss the entire set of causes first—the entire causal chain—before moving on to the significant effects.
8.6 Analytical Writing
Another common type of expository writing assignment you will encounter in your college courses is that of the analytical paper, which asks you to respond to mate-rial you have read and to provide insight into the meaning of that material. When we analyze something, we break it into its component parts in an attempt to understand it more thoroughly.
The Purpose of Analytical Writing In your courses, you may be asked to interpret a piece of literature, a philosophical per- spective, or a theory. Interpretive writing does not merely summarize events, and it does not judge them. It focuses on helping readers understand the meaning and analyzing how the writer conveyed that meaning. If you are asked to evaluate ideas and then judge, argue, or defend your interpretation, your paper will be a combination of expository and persuasive writing. In an analytical paper that is expository but not persuasive, you will simply analyze and explain issues and support your interpretation with details and spe- cific examples from the material itself.
Analytical papers are called by many different names. In a process analysis or process explanation paper, for instance, you are asked to analyze a task or operation that moves through a series of steps. The process might be a physical one such as the writing process, a mental one such as the decision-making process, a mechanical one such as the pro- cess for canning fruit, or a natural process such as breathing. Process explanation papers require you to understand and communicate the main components of a process usually in sequential, time order, and to understand the logical connections among the various elements of the process.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Analytical Writing
Writing Sample: Student Essay Science Fiction in Young Adult Literature
As Young Adult literature moved into the latter half of the twentieth century, it began to incorporate a litany of other genres, from the familiar didactic and adventure stories, to fantasy and romance. Among these, the genre of Science Fiction is well suited to address the changing roles of humans in a more universal context experienced during the mid-twentieth century. In her book A Wrinkle in Time, Madeline L’Engle successfully employs Science Fiction within the Young Adult genre, and uses it to address the concerns of a changing generation of Young Adult readers. Assuming that the purpose of Young Adult literature is not solely to entertain, but to educate, the genre of Science Fiction is particularly appropriate for addressing a young audience growing up in a world of change. It removes the protagonists from a familiar world and places them in a larger context in which they must encounter ideas and circumstances greater than themselves, much like the transition out of adolescence and into adulthood.
L’Engle uses Science Fiction to move the didactic coming of age story out of a familiar world. L’Engle wrote in a generation of rapid and destabilizing changes; things previously considered science fantasy were becoming modern day realities. Where a previous generation may have some trouble accepting such “facts” as space travel, a younger, more readily shaped youth would potentially not
(continued)
Understanding Analytical Writing Another type of analytical paper is a mechanism description or analysis. In this type of paper, you break a simple or complex piece of equipment into its component parts, describe those parts, and attempt to show how it works. People write mechanism descrip- tions about objects as simple as a ballpoint pen or as complex as a rocket engine. An example of this might be found in an owner’s manual for an appliance. You likely would not have to write this kind of paper, but if you did, it would probably be for a science class that is asking you to describe a scientific mechanism.
In your college courses, you might also be asked to construct problem–solution papers. These analytical papers define a problem, suggest alternative solutions to the problem, and discuss each potential solution. Like many other expository papers, problem–solution papers often form the foundation for persuasive writing. After the problem is identified and alternatives discussed, the writer may then make a proposal or structure a persuasive report to recommend a particular solution be adopted. This kind of paper might be writ- ten for a public policy course in which you would write a proposal on some sort of current policy or for advocating the adoption of a new policy.
Structure of Analytical Papers All the analytical papers we have discussed incorporate the characteristics outlined ear- lier in this chapter for expository papers. They have as their common goal to share infor- mation with readers. They also deal with factual information and share this information, in an objective manner, with readers. As you read the sample analytical essay written by an actual student below, please pay particular attention to the structure of the essay and the ways in which the main idea is developed.
A hook that directly pertains to the subject
Appropriate contextual ization of Science Fiction
An arguable topic sentence that directly relates to the thesis
Introduces the author and text
A two sentence thesis. The last part of the second sentence conveys the “so what?” or explanation of why the Science Fiction genre may be important, for it is “much like the transition out of adolescence and into adulthood.”
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Analytical Writing
Writing Sample: Student Essay Science Fiction in Young Adult Literature (continued)
only accept these ideas as plausible, but expand upon them until they were possible. What is truly striking about A Wrinkle in Time is how applicable it is, not only to its contemporary genera- tion of Young Adults, but to consecutive ones as well. In 1962, the year in which L’Engle’s book was published, it was possible for adolescents to get an idea of what was happening in a world outside their own through radio and television. This fact certainly holds true today, though on an even grander scale. However, within the confines of school and family, it is difficult to get an accurate idea of life outside of one’s own sphere, and further to consider that that life is much more complex than what one is used to. The challenge, then, is to illustrate a sense of adolescent bewilderment in a less familiar way. In other words, how best can the Young Adult reader be removed from the familiar, or at least a world that is seemingly so, and confronted with one that is not? The answer: through the imaginative, but not entirely unrealistic, realm of Science Fic- tion. Science Fiction during the 1960s was able to address a youth experiencing a growth in scien- tific discovery and questioning of human beings’ place in the Universe. As L’Engle herself notes, “My entire life has been full of change. We’ve gone from riding a horse to traveling in space all in one lifetime” (1982). Space is perhaps the final frontier which we accept exists, but which we collectively do not understand. This mysteriousness makes space a perfect arena in which to set a story about differences and the unknown. It prompts us to ask the big questions, such as, “Is there life out there aside from what we know here on earth?” and “What is our place within such a large universe?” The transition from the familiarity of childhood into adolescence, and again from adolescence into adulthood prompts much the same questions for a young adult reader.
Though L’Engle’s story certainly delves into a world of imagination, it is still grounded in reality. Meg’s transformation is not unbelievable; it is relatable at its core, which makes it appealing to young adults. Meg is an outcast; she is plain and awkward, and has trouble maturing with the rest of her peers. Young adult readers can sympathize with these issues, and through this identifica- tion with Meg, they are able to experience her growth and rebirth. At the beginning of A Wrinkle in Time, Meg wonders why she cannot be like everyone else. L’Engle answers this question by literally creating a world in which all beings are alike. The darkness pervading this world is a manifestation of physical and social conformity; those who give in to the darkness are stripped of their individuality. As Charles Wallace, under the influence of IT, explains, “On Camazotz we are all happy because we are all alike. Differences create problems. You know that’s the rea- son you’re not happy at school. Because you’re different” (L’Engle, 1962, p. 131). Meg has been shown to struggle with her differences throughout the book, and it is not until she accepts these differences that she can become an effective member of the group. Though her awareness of this comes gradually, Meg’s experience on the strange, dystopian world of Camazotz prompts her to the realization that “Maybe [she doesn’t] like being different, but [she doesn’t] want to be like everybody else, either” (L’Engle, 1962, p. 131). This realization allows Meg to grow and under- stand that perhaps being like everyone else will not make her as happy as she previously assumed back on Earth. The book specifically identifies historical figures that have stood up in the face of conformity, who question rather than blindly accept. Those who struggle against society’s norms, against IT, are considered to be the light against the darkness of conformity. Meg is shown throughout the book to be different from those around her, and these differences are what make her such an important part of the defense against the universal attack on individuality by IT.
(continued)
This topic sentence adds another layer of complexity by claiming that the novel is imaginative but has realistic elements.
A multi sentence analysis of the last few quotes in this paragraph. It elaborates on the concept of conformity in the novel and relates this to Meg’s character.
This section of the essay presents the problem or question the essay is trying to answer, and gives a potential answer to that question—that the Science Fiction genre offers a sense of “adolescent bewilderment.”
Direct citation is used as evidence to support the claim of the paragraph
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Analytical Writing
Writing Sample: Student Essay Science Fiction in Young Adult Literature (continued)
At the onset of the story, Meg falls very much into the second stage of psychologist Otto Rank’s stages of adolescent development: she is doing poorly in school and rebelling against authority figures, such as her teachers and her principal, Mr. Jenkins. Meg is unable to conform to her surrounding society, but at the same time is also unable to form an effective identity. For her to become a contributing member of society as an adult, it is essential that Meg pass into Rank’s third stage, that of the hero. Through the events on her journey to rescue her father from the evil IT on Camazotz, Meg learns the difference between rebelling ineffectively and affecting change within society. Her own values of love and a newly found acceptance of not only her own, but others’ differences, allow her to become a force for progress and social change. Her defeat of IT’s control over her brother, Charles Wallace, gives us an example of how resistance of authority, when used in the right way, can be effective. Meg’s resistance to authority in school on Earth was only undermining her ability to function effectively in society rather than enhancing it. However, her resistance of IT’s control is shown to be absolutely essential in preserving the good kind of society that we as readers want Meg, and ourselves, to be a part of. We want Meg to resist, and what is more, Meg needs to resist. It is necessary for Meg to push such boundaries in order for her to understand her own individual freedoms and limitations before she enters the adult world. Individuality is important within a context of interdependency. Meg, regardless of an acceptance of her differences, would not have been able to come to the conclusion she does without work- ing with, and within, a certain society. She gives and receives help between many of the other characters, and this learning to work within will transfer to her life back on Earth. Rather than continuing to act up in school, to be an outsider, Meg can now see how she functions as a part of a larger whole, and will work within that whole to affect change and progress.
L’Engle takes the realistic world of fourteen-year-old Meg, a world fraught with the adversi- ties of high school and adolescence, and casts it into a much larger universe. By placing Meg’s journey of growth in a Science Fiction setting, L’Engle allows Meg to come to terms with her place not only in her own world, that of her family and peers, but within a more universal con- text as well. According to author William Sleator, “the richer a person’s fantasy life, the better s/he is able to deal with real life. Imaginative literature is not only entertainment; it stimulates and exercises the reader’s imagination and improves fantasy skills, making him/her better able to cope with frustrating situations in the real world” (1988, p. 4). The idea is, then, that through experiencing other worlds and encountering perhaps less plausible situations through reading Science Fiction, Young Adults learn the skills which better allow them to address, understand, and cope with unfamiliar situations in their own lives. For Meg in A Wrinkle in Time, this proves to be ultimately true. We can surmise that had Meg never journeyed to Camazotz, she may never have encountered such a fantastic world which would allow her to question and discover her own place in the universe. She would not have been tested and ultimately led to the rebirth necessary for her transition into adulthood. L’Engle creates a story that is new and different, and that chal- lenges what we know with important questions. Perhaps this is why her novel was both rejected 26 times before being published, and then went on to win the 1963 Newbery Medal for the most distinguished contribution to American literature for children. This mixed reception of the book seems fitting, for it questions what we know, which can be hard to accept, but through this ques- tioning, opens up the possibilities of an entirely new and imaginative future.
(continued)
This topic sentence could take a clearer position in relation to the thesis.
These sentences analyze the relationship between independence and a development of a sense of self as part of a society. Notice that each sentence adds something new to this discussion.
This topic sentence could be strengthened by explaining how adolescence is cast “into a much larger universe.” Why is this important to mention?
A “so what?” sentence that indicates a practical application of this novel.
Shows a complex understanding of the novel, and indicates one aspect of the novel’s significance.
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CHAPTER 8 Chapter Summary
Writing Sample: Student Essay Science Fiction in Young Adult Literature (continued)
References L’Engle, M. (1962). A wrinkle in time. New York, NY: Dell.
L’Engle, M. (1982). “Subject to change without notice.” Theory into Practice,(21)4, Children’s Literature (Autumn, 1982). Abingdon, VA: Taylor& Francis.
Sleator, W. (1988). What is it about science fiction? ALAN Review (15)2. Retrieved from http:// go.galegroup.comlpsli.do?&id=GALE% 7CHI420078308&v=2.1 &u=&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w>
Chapter Summary Exposition, or expository writing, is one of the most common types of writing you will encounter in your college classes and in the workplace. When we write expository papers, we share information with readers. Exposition can have many purposes—to inform read- ers about a topic, to clarify or explain a concept or idea, to define terms, to analyze a subject or text, to instruct readers, to describe an item, to explore ideas, or to interpret a subject so that it is understandable to readers.
Because effective exposition requires that readers understand the information you pres- ent, it is imperative that your writing be accurate, complete, clear, and focused. To accom- plish these goals, exposition uses formal language and employs words that have clear, descriptive, nonemotional denotative meanings. It also often incorporates specific writ- ing conventions such as definition, classification, and description to ensure that readers understand the information presented.
A wide range and variety of different types of academic and professional papers fall into the category of expository writing, including essays, informative reports, reflective papers, and interpretive papers. Many discussion-post responses also require a response that is written in an expository manner. Some types of exposition follow prescribed patterns that have their own specific elements or approaches. Comparison-and-contrast, cause- and-effect, and analytical papers are categories of exposition that require specific formats and structures—and these papers are frequently reflective papers (rather than simply informing readers of a topic, they tend to ask students to analyze and synthesize mate- rial). Although exposition encompasses a broad field of many types of papers, the basic principles of this type of writing are provided in this chapter. Mastering the essentials of exposition we have discussed here will give you the tools you need to excel at many of your writing tasks both in college and in your present or future career.
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CHAPTER 8Key Terms
Key Terms analytical paper A paper in which a writer offers an interpretation of a text, event, circumstance, or other objects of analysis.
block arrangement A type of organiza- tional arrangement that mentions all the features about one subject before it moves on to another subject.
causal chain A type of analysis that per- ceives a sequence of events in which one event causes the next.
cause-and-effect paper Assesses the fac- tors that led to a particular effect.
chronological order A type of organiza- tion that presents tasks in the order in which they are performed and information in the order in which it occurred in time, usually from earliest to latest.
classification A method of organizing information by grouping items into cat- egories with other items that share similar characteristics.
comparison-and-contrast paper A type of expository paper that assesses the main similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
defining terms Explaining what a term means by labeling it and/or providing synonyms.
description Characterizing or giving qualities in order to make something vivid to the reader.
informative writing A type of expository writing that provides the reader with facts about a particular topic, such as a descrip- tion of how something works.
mechanism description A type of analyti- cal paper in which one breaks a simple or complex piece of equipment into its com- ponent parts, describes those parts, and attempts to show how it works.
point-by-point arrangement A method of arranging a comparison-and-contrast paper in which one compares or contrasts subjects point by point, choosing one fea- ture at a time and alternating between the subjects when discussing that feature.
post hoc ergo propter hoc A Latin phrase meaning “after this therefore because of this.”
problem–solution paper A type of ana- lytical paper in which the author defines a problem, suggests alternative solutions to the problem, and discusses each potential solution.
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