a standard five-paragraph essay
THE ILIAD
INFORMATION ABOUT:
WHY ARE WE READING SELECTIONS FROM THE ILIAD?
The study of Humanities considers human beings’ reaction to the human struggle… archaeological sites provide a few clues.
As soon as writing is invented and we have actual records of the stories people told about themselves, there’s a much clearer picture.
Some of the stories are versions of myths that had already been passed down by word of mouth for centuries.
Some of the stories are accounts of historical events.
Sometimes we’re not sure which is which –
We already read Gilgamesh, which is clearly mythic – but it may dimly reflect some real historical events.
There was an ancient city named Uruk. There were earthquakes in the region that may have produced stories of “The Bull of Heaven” trampling the earth.
The entirely fantastic aspects of the story (like the
transformation of Enkidu, the slaying of Humbaba,
and the journey across the Waters of Death to meet
Utnapishtim, the man who would live forever) still
imply a wrenching transition as human beings shift-
ed from wilderness living to cities , and the growing
self-consciousness that forced them to confront their
own mortality. Most of these old stories include a
character attempting to outwit Death.
The Iliad is a natural next step in this series.
It’s not as old as Gilgamesh, but still very ancient – about 600 years older than the familiar version of the Hebrew Bible.
It is not a written version of garbled oral traditions, but a poem apparently composed by a single literary artist.
Supposedly, this writer was Homer, according to tradition a blind poet who lived “sometime between” the 12th and 8th centuries BCE – but there is no real proof that this person ever existed.
It involves the Trojan War, which was long considered a myth – but now there is growing archaeological evidence
that it may actually have happened .
However, if The Iliad has one foot in history, it
has the other foot in sheer mythology and the
antics of the Greek gods.
And it has a hero who, like Gilgamesh, is half god,
but confronts the fact that he will one day die. Homer: portrait of a man who may never have lived.
DID THE TROJAN WAR REALLY HAPPEN?
The ancients believed the Trojan War had really happened, and the date they gave was 1184 BCE.
In the 1870s, Heinrich Schliemann, a very wealthy German businessman who was fascinated with the legend of Troy, sponsored an archaeolog-cal dig in the area of Turkey where the city was supposed to have been.
Problem: they found the ruins of nine Troys, one on top of the other… number seven, which showed evidence of destruction by fire, is the strongest candidate for an actual Troy that corresponds to the legend.
More recently, a mass burial site has been uncovered on the nearby coast, possibly the remains of a Greek army. Hmmm. We’re still not sure.
Supposedly the War lasted for ten years – the Iliad only covers a few weeks of the final, tenth year.
There were probably other writings dealing with the rest of the War, but they have been lost.
The Iliad is 24 “books” (actually, more like chapters) long… our Course Reader includes only 3 of those “books,” just a sampling.
The ancient Greeks were familiar with the whole story and, to put your reading in context, you should be too, so here we go –
Whether or not the War is historic fact, the story begins with myth –
The Myth that Turned into War
There once was a goddess named Thetis. She was so beautiful that all the gods desired her, but (as is often the case in Greek mythology) there was a curse attached.
Thetis was fated to give birth to a son who
would be greater than his father.
None of the Greek gods wanted to touch
that, especially Zeus, King of the gods.
Finally Zeus decided to relieve the tension
by marrying Thetis off to a mortal (the
gods reasoned that mortals were odd –
they didn’t mind if their children turned
out to be more successful).
This wasn’t just any mortal – he was a King
called Peleus – but Thetis was resistant:
what if she had a mortal child by him? Someday that child would die!
Thetis’ Wedding Day
In order to bring the marriage off as quickly and smoothly as possible, Zeus arranged a huge, lavish wedding to flatter Thetis. He decreed that it be a day of joy attended by all the gods and goddesses , free of discord.
This being Greek mythology, discord was an actual person – a goddess named Eris, who brought dissatisfaction and conflict wherever she went.
Eris was barred from attending the wedding, and she was very insulted.
She rolled a golden apple along the ground right into the wedding party she hadn’t been allowed to join. On the apple was inscribed, “To the fairest.” This immediately created discord!!
Eris takes action.
The Controversy
Right away, an argument flared up
about who deserved this apple
inscribed “To the fairest” –
Hera, the Queen of the gods and wife
to Zeus ,thought it was for her.
Athena, the goddess of warfare, felt
she should have it.
And Aphrodite, the goddess of love
and beauty, thought it obviously
was hers.
Zeus was too smart to get mixed up
in THAT.
Zeus decided that the argument should be settled by an impartial judge, a mortal, a young Trojan Prince named Paris.
Background on Paris
Paris was a son of Priam and Hecuba, the King and Queen of Troy, and he had a curse of his own that fit right in.
When she was pregnant with him, Hecuba had dreamed that she gave birth to a flaming torch. An oracle told her that meant that she would have a son who would bring destruction on Troy.
When Paris was born, Priam decreed that he would have to be left in the wilderness to die… this never works. Some shepherds found the baby, rescued him and raised him… and when he was a young man his regret-ful parents recognized him and welcomed him back into the royal family.
And then came that surprise assignment from Zeus…
Who Gets the Apple?
Young Paris was presented with an impossible task. No matter which goddess he decided was “the fairest,” the other two would be angry and vengeful. The goddesses appeared and immediately tried to bribe him.
Hera said if he chose her, she would
give him power over all Europe.
Athena said that she would make
him a mighty warrior. (Ironically,
Paris replied, “What would be the
point? Troy is so peaceful.”) – It
didn’t stay that way…
Aphrodite said she would give him
the most beautiful woman in the world. Guess which goddess he chose.
But there was a catch to it, as there always is …
And Here Comes the War --
The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, and she was already married to the King of Sparta, Menelaus.
Paris went to visit them, and he and Helen hit it off just fine.
When Menelaus had to go away on a brief business trip, Paris kidnapped Helen and took her home to Troy!
Naturally, Menelaus was not pleased.
Menelaus appealed to his brother, Agamemnon, the King of Mycenae (who happened to be married to Helen’s sister, Clytemnestra) for help.
Agamemnon roused all the other Greek kings and their armies to the cause, and the Greeks declared war on the Trojans. They demanded that Helen be returned to her husband.
Background on Achilles
Meanwhile, don’t forget Thetis, the lovely goddess who was forced to
marry the Greek king Peleus.
Thetis did give birth to a mortal baby, Achilles, and she immediately became frantic because one day he would die. She began trying various ways to make him immortal.
She tried to purify him in fire, but Peleus caught her and stopped it.
She then dipped the baby in the River Styx, the mythical river that flows round the Underworld, to endow him with eternal life.
It would have worked, but she held baby
Achilles by the heel, and his heel never
touched the magic water.
Achilles grew up to become Greece’s mightiest
warrior, the son of a King and a goddess, and
entirely immortal, except for that heel.
Guess what’s going to happen.
The Armies Assemble
The various Greek Kings with their armies assembled to sail to Troy to fight to get Helen back.
Achilles was by now the Greeks’ most valuable warrior, stronger and more skilled than anyone else. Of course, they needed him along.
Thetis, afraid that her son might die despite all her efforts, disguised him as a girl and installed him as a companion to the princesses of Skyros.
He wasn’t a huge success as a girl… he got one of the princesses pregnant, was discovered, and had to report for duty anyway.
Note: these myths aren’t very logical … the War arises from an incident (the gold- en apple) at Thetis’ wedding. Suddenly, Thetis’ child from that marriage is all grown up and fighting in the same War! Never mind.
The Story of Iphigenia
Here comes another subplot! Agamemnon was in charge, and the armies were all ready to go – but there was no wind. The warships traveled by sail and could not get to Troy on a becalmed sea.
Agamemnon consulted an oracle, and was told that the goddess Artemis was angry and would not let the winds blow.
The only way to appease Artemis would be a sacrifice: Agamemnon would have to sacrifice his own daughter, the Princess Iphigenia.
Agamemnon decided he had no choice. He sent a message to Iphigenia and her mother, Clytemnestra, to come down to the harbor for a great honor – she was going to be married to the famed warrior, Achilles!
Thrilled, Iphigenia appeared in her best wedding regalia, but…
… she arrived just to find out that her father intended to kill her.
Queen Clytemnestra was outraged at her husband’s trick, but there was nothing she could do. He was King. (She never forgave him – ten years later, when he returned from Troy, she murdered him in his bath.)
Achilles was outraged that his name had been used this way; he swore he would fight Agamemnon and rescue Iphigenia.
However, Iphigenia came to terms with it. “If I have to be sacrificed so that my country will be victorious in war, then so be it,” she said, “history will remember and honor me because I gave my life for Greece.”
She got that right – there is now a famous play and a grand opera about her. Many artists have de- picted the story; in this painting, Agamemnon leads his resigned daughter and his grieving wife to the sacrificial altar, as Achilles threatens him.
Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter, Artemis allowed the winds to rise, and the Greek army was able to sail to Troy.
Note in this artist’s depiction, Agamemnon is grieving too, and holds his daughter’s hand as he stabs her.
As Mary Lefkowitz states in
your Reader (p. 101-107),
the gods pursued their
interests without much
concern for humans. Art-
emis had no reason to pun-
ish poor Iphigenia.
Note also that, unlike Gilga-
mesh, Achilles acts honor- ably toward women from
the very beginning. We’ll
see more examples of this.
Fast Forward! Fast Forward!
We now jump ahead to the point at which the Iliad begins – the Trojan War has been raging for ten years; we don’t know much about the first nine.
Things have reached a stalemate: the Greeks have had a few victories, and in some of them have captured Trojan girls to be forced companions for the officers.
Agamemnon has taken a girl named Chryseis as his concubine. Chryseis’ father Chryses – a priest of Apollo – comes to plead for her release.
Agamemnon refuses. Again, Achilles acts honorably toward a mistreated girl: he denounces King Agamemnon for his selfishness and tries to hurl a spear at him (the goddess Athena invisibly stops the spear – the gods are always interfering).
The priest Chryses appeals to the god Apollo and Apollo rains down such suffering and calamity on the Greeks that Agamemnon relents – he’s forced to release Chryseis to her father.
Then what does Agamemnon do? He seizes Briseis, Achilles’ Trojan girl-friend, to take Chryseis’ place in his bed.
Even though Briseis was a
captive, she liked living
with Achilles and weeps
when she’s taken away.
Achilles loved her, and is inconsolable. He con-
jures up his goddess
mother and complains.
Thetis is very indulgent,
because she knows that
someday her beloved
mortal son must die.
Thetis takes the case to
Zeus, and he rains down
suffering and calamity
on the Trojans so the
Greeks begin winning.
However, Achilles is a bit of a diva and refuses to fight. He is still angry that Briseis was taken from him, and he won’t do anything to benefit Agamemnon. (Notice that Homer says at the start of the Iliad that his theme is “the wrath of Achilles” – the star warrior’s explosive tempera-ment.) Of course, the other soldiers are discouraged that Achilles is not in the battlefield with them.
Achilles has a close companion named Patroclus (perhaps they’re lovers – the Greeks were very versatile about their romantic relationships – but we don’t know; anyway, they’re like Gilgamesh and Enkidu)… Patroclus says, “Look, let me put on your armor and step out into battle. The soldiers will think it’s you and feel encouraged.”
Achilles says OK.
What could possibly go wrong?
The Trojan Royal Family
We need a moment to catch up with some other characters who will be important. You know that Priam and Hecuba are King and Queen of Troy and parents of Paris. Paris was not their only child.
They had a large family (one account says 99 sons, which is pushing it), but there are two other children who will be important.
They have a son named Hector, who is Crown Prince. He is a good man, is happily married to Andromache, and they have a baby son.
Hector is also the Trojans’ champion warrior, their equivalent of Achilles.
Priam and Hecuba also have a daughter, t the Princess Cassandra.
Cassandra has an interesting back story. The god Apollo once fell in love with her, and as a courtship gift, he endowed her with the ability to see the future.
Cassandra still said, “No thanks.” (You already know from the Gilgamesh/Ishtar story that it’s a bad idea to reject a god or goddess.)
Apollo said, “All right, I can’t take back my gift, but I’ll add something else. You will always be able to see the future and know what must be done, but no one will ever believe you.”
And throughout the War, Cassandra is continu- ally warning what the Greeks will do next and how they should be countered, but nobody ever listens and the city is destroyed. It nearly drives her insane.
Meanwhile, Back on the Battlefield
As battle rages between the Greeks and Trojans, Patroclus goes out in Achilles’ armor to encourage their fellow Greeks. He had promised Achilles he would stay at the back, but the god Apollo makes him forget that promise. (Notice that the ancients believed that every-thing happening was because of the gods – most of their inter-ference was done invisibly, but they caused everything.)
Of course, Hector recognizes the armor, thinks it’s the great Achilles, and he kills Patroclus. Hector strips him of the armor to keep it as proof and a trophy.
One of the soldiers carries Patroclus’ body back to Achilles, who (like Gilgamesh with Enkidu) goes wild with grief.
Achilles feels guilty for giving him the armor, just as Gilgamesh felt guilty for angering Ishtar, which led to the Bull of Heaven’s attack and Enkidu’s death.
Thetis is distressed to know her son is grieving, and she rushes to the god Hephaestos, the craftsman of the gods, and convinces him to make Achilles a new suit of armor.
She delivers it in person, hoping to please her son, even though she realizes it may inspire him to return to war, and die all the sooner.
She and Achilles have had long talks about his mortality. The gods have given him the choice of a long, ordinary life or a short, glorious one. He chooses the latter.
Achilles puts on his new armor and goes back to the battlefield with a vengeance.
Consumed with anger over Patroclus’ death, Achilles fights like a maniac and single-handedly begins winning the War. One river becomes so clogged with bodies that the god of the river, Scamander, overflows his banks in rage and tries to drown Achilles.
The Trojans have retreated to the safety of the city walls, but Hector refuses to go. His brother Deiphobus appears beside him and says, “I will fight with you –” but as Achilles comes roaring toward them, Deiphobus turns into Athena and vanishes – it was just a trick. (Note: “Deiphobus” means “fear the gods.”) Hector stands alone.
After an intense fight, Achilles kills Hector. The correct thing to do would be to treat his body with honor – Hector is after all a Prince and a great warrior – but Achilles is still furious over Patroclus’ death. He ties Hector’s body to the back of his chariot and drags it round and round the city as the Trojans watch from the walls in horror.
This goes on for seven days. Every night, the god Apollo restores Hector’s mangled body, and every day, Achilles drags him again.
Finally, the old King Priam comes bravely into the Greek camp and pleads with Achilles to release his son’s body so that he may give it a decent burial.
Achilles has started to mellow. He knows that his own life will end soon and he thinks of his own elderly father, Peleus, and how grieved he will be to hear of his death.
He allows Priam to take Hector’s body.
(Note that the Iliad begins with the plea of a father, and it ends the same way.)
Pretending to Retreat
But the story’s not quite over. The Greeks announce that they have had enough, and are returning home.
They leave behind a colossal statue of a horse… a parting gift, they say, for the Trojans.
The Trojans are delighted.
Cassandra warns them of the danger, but they ignore her.
They haul the horse inside the city walls. You probably know the rest: it is filled with the Greek army. That night they come pouring out, and they wreck the city.
A Victory Gone Wrong
This is where the Greeks spoil their own victory. Elated to see the ten years of War finally come to an end, they behave very badly.
They ruin the city.
Cassandra has run into a temple of Athena for refuge, and thrown her arms around Athena’s statue, which should guaran- tee safety – but the Greeks drag her out and rape her in the streets.
Hector’s wife, Andromache, is sent into slavery and their baby son is thrown off the city walls.
There are rules that a triumphant army is supposed to follow, but the Greeks act dishonorably, and it angers the gods.
Of course there will be consequences.
Old Priam has withdrawn with his family to a private altar, to pay sacrifice and pray for rescue – the Greek soldiers burst into this holy place and kill him in full sight of the gods.
And– you knew this was coming – Achilles is ambushed by the brothers Paris and Deiphobus, and is shot with an arrow in his heel.
It was the only part of him that was mortal, and Achilles dies.
Thetis, ever the sensitive Mom, places his ashes in the same urn as those of Patroclus, so they can be comrades for eternity.
Yet another child of Priam and Hecuba, their daughter Polyxena, is sacrificed over Achilles’ grave.
So – this epic account of a great War not only begins and ends with a father grieving for a child (Chryses, Priam) ,but with an innocent girl sacrificed (Iphigenia, Polyxena). We’re no longer dealing with a tangle of long-repeated stories – we’re dealing with one of the world’s first great literary masterpieces.
Homer – or whoever it was we now know as “Homer” – wrote a sequel, The Odyssey, which follows one of the Greek kings, Odysseus, and his attempts to return home.
It took Odysseus another ten years. The gods – especially Poseidon, god of the seas – were very angry at the Greeks and caused terrible storms that sank most of their ships.
Agamemnon made Cassandra his concubine and took her back to Mycenae; as they approached the palace, Cassandra calmly remarked, “And this is where I will be killed” – as usual, her prophecy was right; Clytemnestra , still bitter about her daughter’s death, welcomed her husband home by murdering both him and his mistress.
Paris was wounded in the last days of the battle and later died.
Helen and Menelaus were reunited and apparently worked it all out. They returned to Sparta and in The Odyssey make an appearance as a cheerful couple hosting Odysseus’ son, who is searching for his still-lost father.
* * * * * * *
The pages you were assigned cover only a fragment of all this, but won’t make enough sense unless you understand the other parts of the story. For the quiz, you should be able to recognize names and remember the roles they played.
Try googling almost any name or incident from the Iliad and clicking “images” – you’ll find an infinite number of works of art that were inspired by this story. The Greeks believed that the human struggle was entirely governed by the gods – for selfish and obscure reasons of their own – but through their artful attempts to make sense of it all, the Greeks had a massive impact on Western culture.
See the next page for a quick study guide –
Here Are Some Important Names:
GREEKS TROJANS GODS/GODDESSES
Achilles Andromache Aphrodite
Agamemnon Cassandra Apollo
Clytemnestra Deiphobus Artemis
Helen Hector Athena
Iphigenia Hecuba Hephaestos
Menelaus Paris Hera
Patroclus Polyxena Hermes
Peleus Priam Poseidon
Scamander
Thetis
Zeus
The gods and goddesses are color-coded to show which side each one sympathized with (and interfered on behalf of) – the ones in grey were fairly neutral.