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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

ሁ Explain why learning psychology is a complex field of study. ሁ Identify variables that may affect successful processing of information. ሁ Evaluate the applicability of evolving frameworks to foundational learning theory. ሁ Understand ethical considerations associated with applied learning psychology. ሁ Identify careers that apply learning psychology.

The Psychology of Learning Michelle Rosser-Majors, PhD—Ashford University 3

Weedezign/iStock/Thinkstock

Section 3.1Introduction to Learning Psychology

James Maddox is the lead case manager for the county department of human services. A new platform for documenting client cases is about to be implemented across the department and James must train all of his case managers to successfully use the system. As he brainstorms training ideas, he recalls the psychology of learning class he took when he was earning his bachelor’s degree in psychology. He knows that the training must communicate the crucial components of the new platform, but he also knows that how he communicates these compo- nents, that is, the design of the training, may be even more important. It is essential that the training be effective and engaging. He knows that there are many variables that can affect effective knowledge acquisition and that individuals have complex and diverse learning pref- erences. He also recalls the different theories that suggest best practices for helping one’s self, as well as others, to learn more effectively. Based on this, he designs what he hopes will be an engaging training that will appeal to many different types of learners and result in long-term knowledge acquisition.

James’s situation reminds us that learning is a part of our everyday lives, whether personal or professional, and also reminds us of the importance of knowing how to effectively support learning opportunities for ourselves and for others. Consider the following questions that might guide James in developing a more successful training event:

ሁ What theories of learning can support the development of training materials? ሁ What strategies could be utilized to encourage successful learning? ሁ How can James learn more about his case managers to better design the training? ሁ How might the diversity of his team create stumbling blocks during the training? How

might it enhance the training process?

3.1 Introduction to Learning Psychology The questions posed in the introductory scenario are typical of the variety addressed by those who are applying strategies in the domain of learning. Learning psychology is devoted to understanding how people learn as well as how people learn most effectively (Rosser- Majors, 2017). People can apply the theories and models of learning psychology to support increased learning opportunities for themselves and others, whether they are in the learning psychology field or in another career (e.g., sales, teaching, or caregiving). The development of personal goals can also be supported by an understanding of how people learn (e.g., through self-improvement, playing games, or life experience).

Throughout the history of psychology, people have studied different aspects of learning, and the research clearly substantiates one fact: understanding how people learn is a complex task. As scholars began to better understand learning behaviors in the early-mid 1900s, it became apparent that behaviorism, a theory that suggested all learning was a nonconscious response to a stimulus, did not fully explain the complexities of this domain. In response, the cognitive revolution, beginning in the 1950s, suggested that people’s minds were active participants in learning and that how the mind processes knowledge is important (Baars, 1986; Bruner, 1990; Gardner, 1985; Watrin & Darwich, 2012; Sperry, 1993). Research into this perspective has been driven by advancements in technology and the demands of an increasingly com- petitive world and has offered new, innovative strategies that support more effective learn- ing (Sternberg, 2015; Wicks, Nakisher & Grimm, 2016). Although helpful, the advances in research have only made it more apparent how complex learning is, and often the strategies

Section 3.1Introduction to Learning Psychology

suggested by researchers can be difficult to address in traditional and evolving learning set- tings. Hence, scholars and educators continue to dedicate themselves to understanding how to create the most effective learning opportunities for all, based on foundational knowledge of human behavior and the mind.

As you have learned throughout your psy- chology courses, behavior (and therefore learning) is affected by all aspects of the person: biological, psychological, physio- logical, neurological, experiential, and emotional. With so many considerations, understanding which approach will be the most advantageous for one’s own context can be daunting. But it is this complexity that continues to inspire us to understand how learning takes place.

In addition, as you have also learned, cul- tural myopia encourages the tendency to judge learning experiences based on only one’s own experiences, without full acknowledgment of their complexities. For example, have you ever been presented with a new concept, whether in a course at school or in conversation with friends, and totally rejected it as false or impossible without doing any further research? This may be because the new concept does not support what you think you already know based on past experience. Unconsciously, you do not accept the new knowl- edge, and research suggests you do not effectively move it to long-term memory (LTM)—the storage area for information that has been processed through working memory. In addition, myths or misguided representations about one’s ability to learn based on demographic or other attributes (e.g., the falsehood that specific races are less intelligent than others) may also effect one’s ability to process information effectively. Simply put, if you believe you are not good at math, you are less likely to succeed in that subject. If you believe someone else will not be good at math, you may be less likely to support their learning opportunities ade- quately. Our cumulative experiences create our culture and can affect our approach to learn- ing. Therefore, misguided notions, as mentioned in these examples, alluding to what intel- ligence and learning are and are not perpetuate conscious and unconscious perceptions that may lead to bias, bigotry, and intolerance of others, as well as ineffective learning.

Psychologists who study learning and memory have found that experiences, emotions, and foundational human needs affect what, how much, and the accuracy of what people can store in working memory (WM)—a limited capacity, short-term cognitive system for processing and storing information—and LTM. This concept is important to understand, as WM capacity has been linked to the ability to strategize and effectively process tasks (Gathercole, Durl- ing, Evans, Jeffcock & Stone, 2007; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). Research suggests that LTM can store unlimited information; however, the accuracy of what knowledge is stored and how it is organized within this area of the mind varies. Research is now suggesting that humanistic variables (e.g., emotions and needs) may also affect one’s ability to sustain attention during the information collection and storing process, making these factors an important consider- ation in the learning process (Butts, 2017).

Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Research suggests that we are less likely to

retain new information that does not align with our current knowledge and experience.

Section 3.1Introduction to Learning Psychology

But how does the multifaceted nature of effective knowledge acquisition affect scholars as human beings with hopes to improve themselves and their personal circumstances? How does it affect future professionals?

As we will discuss, learning psychology is applicable in our everyday lives, both profession- ally and personally. It can support us in our ability to work with others, in advancing our careers, in becoming increasingly self-actualized (Aanstoos, 2016, 2017), and in helping oth- ers achieve their goals. In addition, understanding how humans learn is directly associated with performance, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. Understanding this area of psychology allows people to have more autonomy to pursue their goals, both professional and personal.

Career Spotlight: Makayla B.

Name: Makayla B.

Primary job title: Behavior Interventionist

Current employer: Love 2 Learn Consulting LLC

How long have you been employed in your present position? I’ve been with Love 2 Learn for 1 1/2 years.

What year did you graduate with your bachelor’s degree in psychology? I graduated in 2015.

Describe your major job duties and responsibilities. I implement behavior programs designed by a board-certified behavior analyst to assist students in improving their learn- ing performance. Basically, I work with parents and educators to support the develop- ment of children in the area of learning. My current work takes place in the local schools, although I have also worked with clients in their homes. This is a field position, which means that I work on-site with many clients throughout my day.

What elements of your undergraduate training in psychology do you use in your work? On a daily basis, I am applying numerous areas of behavior modification recom- mendations, so, yes, a substantial number of my psychology courses have supported me in being able to do this. Having knowledge about learning psychology has supported me in better understanding the variables that may affect poor school performance, which is often what initiates our company’s work with the child. In addition, I have to keep accurate records for each client; thus, an understanding of behavior-oriented situations is needed so that I can more effectively communicate with my team, the clients, and other stakeholders. In particular, the courses in abnormal, developmental, and personality psychology have been extremely helpful to me. Truth be told, even my statistics course has come in handy as I work to advance my knowledge for future professional licenses.

What do you like most about your job? I love being able to help children to be the best them they can be. I also love the autonomy my company offers me, as well as working with divergent behavioral situations and contexts. It keeps me on my toes, and I love it.

What do you like least about your job? Sometimes figuring out how to actually hear and discover what the child needs can be difficult. It is not always easy for a child to communi- cate what they are going through. Sometimes they don’t even really know. In addition, it

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Section 3.2Foundations of Learning

3.2 Foundations of Learning Understanding how people learn serves as a foundation for both personal and professional development. Two key learning theories regarding how we learn are cognitivism and behav- iorism. According to cognitivism, learning is demonstrated by the successful retrieval of information from LTM. However, according to behaviorism, learning is only demonstrated

Career Spotlight: Makayla B. (continued)

is not uncommon for some of the home environments to be less than healthy, which can be tough on the heart strings.

Beyond your bachelor’s degree, what additional education or specialized training have you received? I have no other degrees besides my bachelor’s in psychology. I am cur- rently working on my board certified assistant behavior analyst (BCaBA) certificate. I am also hoping to go back to school at some point to become a board-certified behavior ana- lyst. I’ll need my master’s degree for that.

What is the compensation package for an entry-level position in your occupation? Right now my salary is around $35,000, but once I am certified I’ll get a big raise, so I should be making closer to $50,000. I also receive ongoing paid training. That’s how I am getting my BCaBA certification. I have excellent medical, dental, and vision plans. We also have f lexible spending accounts, paid time off, paid drive time, mileage reimbursement, and a 401k plan.

What are the key skills necessary for you to succeed in your career? Being able to feel competent with the other many professionals I deal with has been a great benefit. Knowing domain-specific words in both educational and behavioral psychology has helped me to feel more competent and respected.

Thinking back to your undergraduate career, can you think of extracurricular (e.g., psychology club, Tau Upsilon Alpha, etc.) that were key to success in your type of career? I really enjoyed being in the Ashford online psychology club. It was actually one of my fellow students that mentioned this career in one of our meetings. I had no idea it existed and would probably have never known if it hadn’t been for my involvement with that group. I also got to meet many of the full time professors, which was really a great way to connect with them in a different way. It helped me to realize how much they really are there to help us.

As an undergraduate, do you wish you had done anything differently? If so, what? I wish I would have managed my time better. There were so many interesting things to learn about in all of my classes. I wish I had taken the time to dig deeper than I did in the begin- ning. As I advanced in the program, this started to really click for me, but I think I would have done better in my early courses if I had been more self-regulated back in my introduc- tion class.

What advice would you give to someone who was thinking about entering the field you are in? I would definitely tell them to start out strong, take ownership of the learning opportunity, and stay engaged by asking questions and connecting with instructors. Get as much knowledge as you can with the opportunity you’ve accessed. Time will f ly, and it is much easier to interview for jobs if you really understand what you are talking about when it comes to learning and behavior management.

Section 3.2Foundations of Learning

by observable change and is simply a response to a stimulus. Both of these theories provide foundations for developing an understanding of learning and enhancing the effectiveness of one’s own learning and that of others. Both foundational theories have components that can be applied to the same scenarios, which can increase our purposeful inquiry into our own understanding of learning.

For example, if a child takes a bite of hot pizza and it burns the top of his mouth, it could be argued that the child has just learned, by way of a response to a stimulus, that pizza right out of the oven is too hot to eat. This follows the principles of behaviorism. However, does this new knowledge apply to only pizza or could it be extended to anything that is taken out of an oven? Cognitivism would argue that this memory was absorbed into sensory memory, pro- cessed in WM, and stored in LTM, to be later retrieved when a similar situation arises. Thus, the child has learned that anything that has just come out of an oven is too hot to eat. Both behaviorism and cognitivism present valid explanations of how learning takes place and can be associated with different contexts.

What if someone cannot recall a piece of information? Was that information learned? Cognitivism offers numerous explanations that may explain why the knowledge is not effectively retrieved, yet may still exist in a person’s mind. And if one does not change their behavior based on new information, does that mean the new information wasn’t learned? Accord- ing to behaviorism, if there is no change in behavior, the knowledge was not learned; but does this theory fully explain situa- tions when someone knows something but does not accommodate it into their behavior? It is questions such as these that require psychologists to dig deeper.

To fully understand the foundations of learning, one must have an understand- ing of the diverse variables that may affect learning, such as intelligence. But what is intelligence? There are multiple defini- tions. Current research suggests that the knowledge one processes and does not process may have little to do with whether that person is intelligent or not. Additionally, intel- ligence does not necessarily require a strong memory, but it is supported by an ability to pro- cess and organize information effectively so that retrieval is increasingly fluent (Briggs, 2014). The concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ) was originally created to determine whether a child had a learning disability and is now used to compare the level of intellect among those in the same age bracket (Nisbett et al., 2012, as cited in Rosser-Majors, 2017, p. 228). Although being smart is often associated with a high IQ, the numerous concepts associated with intel- ligence (e.g., crystalized [gC], fluid [Gf ], general [g], emotional [EI], and multiple intelligence [MI]) point to the fact that being smart is an ambiguous construct reflective of whether one can or cannot learn effectively and is often misconstrued and inaccurately represented.

demaerre/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ There are multiple definitions of intelligence.

What is yours, and how does it compare to the interpretation of intelligence as the ability to process and organize information?

Section 3.2Foundations of Learning

Adding to the complexities of the psychology of learning is that research and theoretical frameworks offer numerous variables that can explain learning. Inaccurate and inefficient memory development is suggested to be affected by one’s motivation and ability to success- fully accept knowledge as important. For example, if a person does not think that learning how to change a tire on their car is very important, they may be less likely to move a tire- changing lesson effectively to LTM. In addition, if content seems boring to the learner, they may be less likely to pay attention to the instruction. In a learning context, even feelings of not fitting in (belonging) can create a barrier to learning success (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Many variables can affect the learning process, and it is crucial for an expert in this domain to keep this in mind when evaluating others.

Information Processing and Working Memory As previously stated, early in the study of learning, scholars (notably behaviorists) believed that all learning was an automated response to external sources (stimuli) and was not associ- ated with internal mechanisms (Pierce & Cheney, 2004; Watrin & Darwich, 2012). During the latter half of the 20th century, amid the cognitive revolution, people were less able to explore whether or not learning had taken place, since the mind could not be seen and thus could not be studied. Since then, with advancing technologies, scientists have a greater ability to more thoroughly study the brain.

Researchers now know that knowledge can be produced through introspection or examina- tion of prior knowledge (Butts, 2017). Information processing theory claims that informa- tion enters the mind, is organized, and is then stored and retrieved by the learner; it suggests that attention is a key variable in successfully moving and organizing information into LTM (Brosch, Scherer, Grandjean, & Sander, 2013). As knowledge develops, many of the same ques- tions remain: What is learning? Why is learning not always effective? What determines suc- cessful knowledge development? As suggested by cognitivism, information processing—or the process by which information enters through sensory memory, flows through WM, and is then organized and stored in LTM—is foundational in understanding how the brain orga- nizes, retains, and retrieves information (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Information processing system ሁ This figure broadly depicts how information makes its way into sensory, working, and, finally,

long-term memory.

Section 3.2Foundations of Learning

Working memory plays a critical role in most higher-level cognitive tasks, such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Just & Carpenter, 1992). Often, vari- ables can negatively affect the ability to effectively process information. For example, the amount of attention placed on information once it is in WM has been found to be of vital importance (Butts, 2017). One factor that affects this attention is that fact that humans can only process limited amounts of information at one time; the amount of knowledge that can be processed in WM is called the cognitive load. When a person is given too much information to process at one time, or there are too many distractors, effective processing of the necessary information can be difficult (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). In addition, research suggests that an individual’s perception of information (Brosch et al., 2013) and emotional status at the time of taking in information (Samsonovich & Ascoli, 2006) can affect their suc- cess in acquiring knowledge accurately and effectively. Although LTM can house unlimited information, the brain cannot process and send unlimited information from WM to LTM.

Thus, whether or not people can develop or manipulate their working memory capacity is an important consideration for those seeking a deeper understanding of how people learn. Can a person train their brain to process more information at one time? Research says yes. Schol- ars once thought WM was strictly defined by genetics, but research now suggests that WM is a developmental process and can be manipulated by how people organize and attend to the information they are trying to learn (Sweller et al., 1998). Research has also found that WM develops over time as a person ages (Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002) and can also be cultivated through the use of strategies or cognitive training (Gathercole & Alloway, 2007). In 2001, researchers McNamara and Scott studied how the use of strategies, such as chaining (breaking a task down into sequential parts), could affect WM performance, including proce- dural tasks (e.g., reading, riding a bike, baking a cake). Their findings suggested that purpose- fully applied strategies do in fact positively influence effective acquisition and retrieval of knowledge.

Variables Affecting Knowledge Acquisition

Whether they affect the level of attention one has available to successfully manage the formation of memories or the amount of input being processed within WM, outside variables can have both positive and negative effects on how efficiently and accurately one learns information. For instance, chronic high levels of stress hormones can damage areas of the brain that affect learning (McEwen, 2000). It is believed that learner experiences, physi- cal health, emotions, and false (inaccu- rate) memories, as well as other vari- ables, affect schema development. You may recall that schema are categorical representations within the mind that can help facilitate successful learning. Schema development, then, is the process of building new knowledge (in WM) on previous knowledge (in LTM). Take an infant, for example. When an infant cries and the parent picks

Radachynskyi/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Schemas help develop existing knowledge.

Variables that affect schema development include personal experiences, emotions, and physical health.

Section 3.2Foundations of Learning

them up, they learn that this behavior has a consequence and begin to structure schemas that then will be applied to differing contexts, such as the schema that crying leads to getting food.

The following summarizes some of the potential factors (but should not be considered the only affecting factors):

• Personal experiences: Socioeconomics, culture, and other factors can affect the learner’s ability to process information. This may affect motivation and cognitive load, among other aspects of learning. Without information gained from previous experience to link new information to, it is difficult to successfully process the new knowledge to LTM. For example, if a person has lived in a culture where education was not an important factor, they may have difficulty understanding the importance of schools in American culture.

• False memory development: When inaccurate information is believed to be truth, this may affect the acceptance of new knowledge associated with it. For example, in the 1700s Europeans believed tomatoes to be poisonous. In this context, any- one teaching that tomatoes were a healthy addition to one’s diet would have been ignored or considered a liar.

• Emotions: When one experiences emotion, the brain responds as if it is processing knowledge. Emotions can assist a person in better understanding their own needs as well as the needs of others; however, when emotions become extreme, the brain can become overwhelmed and distract the learner from the knowledge he or she may be trying to accommodate.

• Physical health: The brain processes every feeling, both emotional and physical. Thus, when one is in pain, tired, or hungry, WM may be negatively affected. For example, when a person has the flu, it is unlikely they will be able to successfully attend to outside tasks, including new knowledge development.

As previously stated, numerous factors affect successful knowledge development, so how does intelligence fit into the equation? This is an additional area of learning psychology that can be complicated, but it is an important facet to consider when forming a comprehensive understanding of learning.

Types of Intelligence Although scholars have suggested that there are different types of intelligence, such as gen- eral (g), crystallized (Gc), fluid (Gf ), multiple (MI), and emotional (EI) intelligences, each area is associated differently with how people learn. IQ is a well-known standard for measuring intelligence, yet general intelligence ( g), which is a measure of an individual’s ability to pro- cess information with cognitive complexity, is suggested to predict variables such as academic achievement, life outcomes, and group differences more clearly than IQ due to its correlations with biological measures. In fact, numerous researchers in the field of intelligence are adher- ing to g as a more reliable assessment for success than IQ (Gottfredson, 1997, 2011). Crystal- lized intelligence (Gc) measures a person’s stored and retrievable knowledge about “the nature of the world and learned operations such as arithmetical ones that can be drawn on in solving problems” (Nisbett et al., 2012, as cited in Rosser-Majors, 2017, p. 229). Fluid intel- ligence (Gf ) measures the ability to solve problems using spontaneous learning, reasoning, and problem solving rather than stored knowledge. Some scholars have found Gf to be related to WM capacity, and some believe that it is the most influential variable in learning (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Perrig, 2008).

Section 3.3Developing Theories in the Field of Learning Psychology

Multiple and emotional intelligences are evolving frameworks that suggest diverse defini- tions of intelligence that may affect performance. Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences (MI) suggests that individual learning varies from person to person based on biopsychologi- cal and cultural factors, such as genetics, mood, personality, and socioeconomics, that can affect skill development. Emotional intelligence (EI) suggests that factual knowledge is not the only area that can be developed to increase performance; emotions and emotional control can also be developed. EI is the ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others.

The growing acceptance of alternative intelligence constructs, such as MI and EI, too often takes away from the importance and validity of IQ and g. That is, a person who has accepted MI or EI as valid might state that humans all learn differently. However, research suggests that human brains process information similarly (Butts, 2017) and that it is preferences, emo- tions, and potentially learning strategies that may determine the effectiveness of cognitive processing.

3.3 Developing Theories in the Field of Learning Psychology

Learning psychology offers additional theoretical frameworks that support the development of knowledge. As you discover ways to apply your knowledge in your personal and profes- sional lives, it is important to consider the vast scope of evolving perspectives that can be applied to help explain and support more effective learning for yourself and others.

Individualized Construction of Knowledge As puzzling as understanding the mind and how it influences learning is, the research associ- ated with effective knowledge acquisition has also encouraged some researchers to look at variables other than information processing. Construction of individualized knowledge and its influence on effective learning is one of the areas explored by constructivism.

According to constructivism, learning involves meaning, but meaning itself cannot be fully explained by what one knows or what one believes they have learned. For example, believ- ing something to be true does not guarantee its validity. Constructivists seek to explain the association of meaning with learning by considering whether knowledge is truly knowledge if it has no meaning within one’s constructed reality (i.e., one’s culture). And if it is not knowl- edge, then how can one say it was learned? For example, if an American learns that Saka Dawa lasts for a month, is this even knowledge if the person does not know what Saka Dawa is or have any way to apply the fact that it lasts for a month? This piece of information has no meaning in the American’s cultural context. Does it become knowledge and gain meaning when that person learns that Saka Dawa is a period of time celebrated by Tibetan Buddhists?

The research lens for constructivism also asserts that learning includes numerous constructs, and these constructs affect everything from the simplest of tasks to the most complex of algo- rithms. It is important to understand that constructivist-based theories do not disprove cog- nitive or behaviorist theories. Instead, previous theories are used in conjunction with the foundational concept that learners should be the center of the process, organizing knowledge that is based on their own reality. Earlier in this chapter we considered how a child learning

Section 3.3Developing Theories in the Field of Learning Psychology

about how food is too hot to eat right out of the oven could be explained both by behaviorism and cognitivism. A construc- tivist would ask “what if the construct of ‘hot’ was not relevant to someone?”

For example, fire walking rituals are prac- ticed across the globe. Hot does not neces- sarily mean the same thing to people that walk across fire-heated coals as it does to those that do not. Thus, if a fire walker was to be told that it was too hot outside to walk barefoot across a sunbaked, sandy beach, that person might consider that to be trivial and inaccurate knowledge; as such, would this information be learned by this individual? This analogy describes the principles of constructivism as a basis for understanding knowledge acquisition.

According to constructivism, everyone’s reality is individualized and self-constructed; hence, one person’s reality, and what learning is for that person, may differ from the reality of another person (Dalgarno, Kennedy, & Bennett, 2014). Constructivism also suggests that experiences, diversity, and culture affect knowledge acquisition, specifically in the area of schema development. The schema development process cannot be easily defined. Given this, the meaning of knowledge within each individual’s LTM becomes a crucial consideration. For example, the schema of communication can differ across cultures, genders, and generations. A young American girl’s schema for effective communication with a friend might be a text message. However, her Italian grandfather’s schema for effective communication is a one-to- one, face-to-face conversation. Thus, when the grandfather asks his granddaughter to “stay in touch,” and she agrees, they might have very different ideas of what that entails. The key to constructivism is the understanding that while two people might assume they both have the same understanding of a concept, what one person associates with that concept may differ greatly from what a person from a different background associates with that same concept.

To elaborate, sociocultural theory (SCT), a subset of constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) that is focused on dialect development, provides a good example of the ideologies of this proposed framework. SCT poses that learning depends greatly on the culture in which it takes place. As individuals learn to speak, to write, and to communicate, they assign meaning and association to words. For example, the word biscuit refers to a flaky bread product in the United States, but refers to a cookie in the United Kingdom. Each culture has associations that may differ from one to the next, therefore, how knowledge is constructed may also differ based on one’s schema.

However, it is very difficult with current technology to study how someone constructs knowl- edge inside their mind. The inability to substantiate this process supports researchers who suggest that constructivism is purely subjective (Phillips, 2000). One theoretical perspective at odds with constructivism is logical positivism. Logical positivists believe that answers to questions about the process of learning should only be based upon empirical research (Gross & Levitt, 1994; Matthews, 1992), and if it cannot be seen or measured, it cannot be accepted as fact. According to this perspective, developed in the early 20th century, any statements that

CuchulainMacLugh/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ For firewalkers, the concept of “heat” takes on a

different meaning.

Section 3.3Developing Theories in the Field of Learning Psychology

cannot be verified should be dismissed from consideration. This clashes with constructiv- ism’s tenet that knowledge is socially constructed and not always verifiable.

It is important to understand the push and pull between various theories, even those that are less well-known or less widely accepted, when developing an understanding of learning psychology.

Humanism Another learning theory that has had less mainstream acceptance is humanism, posing that effective learning should be based on development of the self—including one’s skills, values, and beliefs. Humanism in learning is founded on the ideology that development of the whole person through the discovery of self and self-actualization is crucial to successful perfor- mance in learning contexts. Humanism, an old ideology, was reignited by Carl Rogers (1902– 1987) in the 20th century due to his focus on person-centered therapy. Humanist ideologies promote even further that effective learning is conditional upon numerous variables, and that personal motivation is a necessary part of the learning process. Some academics and scholars suggest that any focus on the development of the whole person—emphasizing the impor- tance of the learner, including his or her thoughts, feelings, and emotions—is to be classi- fied as a humanistic approach (Gage & Berliner, 1991; Lei, 2007; Maples, 1979). Hence, many different theories, both motivational and strategy based (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-determination theory, experiential learning, and transformational learning), embody the humanist philosophy.

According to humanism in learning, it is crucial for learners to become more aware of why they are or are not having success and to purposefully develop the needed components to increase their opportunity for success. Two motivational theories that align with this approach are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs supports the idea that humans have certain needs that must be met before they can fully attend to other things. Without this increase in the meet- ing of needs, one’s motivation to learn may be negatively affected. Self-determination the- ory (SDT) posits that motivation is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic sources, including the intrinsic factor of self-regulation. Therefore, a person’s level of self-regulation may also affect his or her willingness to attend to the learning experience. These motivational theories can be directly applied to support a person’s success in the learning process.

For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can support cognitivism, as attention to stimuli is a major factor in successful learning. Consider a student who has not had breakfast sitting in her morning class. Her working memory may be filled with thoughts of survival—of suste- nance. Thus, cognitive load limitations might suggest that she is too distracted by thoughts of hunger to attend to the new knowledge that must move successfully from WM to LTM.

Self-determination theory suggests that the negating of three key variables, autonomy, com- petence, and belonging, can affect the level of self-regulation individuals apply to their behav- iors, including learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985). If a person does not believe they can learn a new language (competence) and their Spanish class does not provide the support necessary to create more positive beliefs, the learner may not have the self-regulation to continue to do the homework for the Spanish class, and less successful learning will take place.

Humanism also offers learning philosophies that encourage strategies to support more suc- cessful learning, such as experiential and transformational learning. Experiential learning

Section 3.4Ethics in Learning Psychology

is founded on the ideology that learning success is increased in environments that include student-centered curriculum and instruction (Weinstein, 2015). Transformational learning proposes that learning should be founded on the development of critical inquiry that sup- ports the assimilation and adaptation of meaning. Each focus on the development of one’s beliefs and values as the primary function of learning.

Humanism, as a theory that suggests that human life and learning are about the develop- ment of the whole person, can be challenging to apply in our performance-based society. For example, in any given course at school, is the average person more concerned with how much she has learned or the grade she receives? According to humanism, if a person neglects the importance of learning for mastery and instead focuses on performance, the idea of learning gets left behind and personal motivation is reduced. Hence, with a holistic understanding of the importance of the human spirit, the mind, and the potential factors that can affect learn- ing success, there is an opportunity to improve effective learning and to develop the tools to help others improve as well.

Although some evolving frameworks can be controversial, failing to consider the complex- ity of learning can limit the understanding of and the ability to support successful learning opportunities. Thus, as we apply learning psychology to the contexts of our personal and pro- fessional lives, it is important to keep in mind the numerous theoretical frameworks offered about learning and that it is a complex domain that is still growing. Technological advances and the evolution of human society may make possible important discoveries that further elaborate on the current understanding of how people learn, so it is important for psycholo- gists to stay informed of new and evolving findings.

3.4 Ethics in Learning Psychology As an undergraduate of psychology, hav- ing a strong code of ethics can support your career and personal development. Whatever field you choose, if it involves learning psychology, there are certain eth- ical considerations to keep in mind. It is essential that you apply current learning theory accurately when communicating and interacting with those who seek your help, whether that be students, patients, or clients.

For example, a person that seeks to work in education, geriatrics, special needs, or child development (to name a few) should keep in mind that these are vulnerable populations and behave accordingly. It is important to be conscious of bias when working with others, especially children, who are still developing their sense of self and can be greatly impacted by the words of a person in author- ity. For example, a second-grade teacher should make sure to present children with stories and examples that highlight that men and women of all races and ethnicities are equally

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ An ethical consideration for teachers may be to

ensure that students of all backgrounds feel equally represented.

Section 3.5Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology

capable. Similarly, social workers should avoid making assumptions about the families they work with based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status and treat everyone with respect and kindness.

Another ethical guideline to consider is the importance of evidence-based practice. No matter what your career path is, make sure to validate your work with evidence and not simply rely on what you believe to be true. A personal dedication to continual intellectual self-develop- ment will be crucial, since knowledge about how people learn is constantly advancing.

Those who choose to specialize in learning psychology must adhere to all of the ethical prin- ciples applied to general psychology. Section seven in the American Psychological Associa- tion’s “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (2016) specifically addresses educating and training others:

7.01 Design of Education and Training Programs

Psychologists responsible for education and training programs take reason- able steps to ensure that the programs are designed to provide the appropri- ate knowledge…

7.03 Accuracy in Teaching

(a) Psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that course syllabi are accu- rate regarding the subject matter to be covered, bases for evaluating progress, and the nature of course experiences…

(b) When engaged in teaching or training, psychologists present psychologi- cal information accurately.

These guidelines set standards for conduct among psychologists who are involved in teach- ing others. Notice the emphasis on providing accurate and evidence-based information. The full description of these ethical practices can be accessed at https://apa.org/ethics/code/ index.aspx.

An additional ethical consideration, as you get closer to graduating, is your future employer. When seeking employment, knowing the ethics of the organization you choose is important. Many companies have a code of ethics or values listed on their website and in employee hand- books; you can also ask about this in your interview. Do your ethical goals and beliefs match those of the organization you are applying to? Whether volunteering for your community or working full-time for an organization, as a person with a degree in psychology, consider how you will share with those around you the importance of ethical decision making.

3.5 Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology

As a graduate, it will be important to be able to communicate to your professional contacts the skills that a major in psychology has given you, such as a better understanding of behavior, performance, and motivation. There are many professions that list a degree in psychology as

https://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Section 3.5Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology

a requirement, since it is understood that a psychology degree is accompanied by a certain type of learning and thinking.

How does having knowledge about learning psychology benefit you as a soon-to-be graduate? Learning psychology is applicable to both a person’s personal and professional lives. With an increased level of applied metacognition, more purposeful learning can occur. This can sup- port career advancement, better parenting, self-development, skill building, and many more skills that can lead to positive life outcomes.

With an understanding of learning, a person can better prepare more effective training mate- rials, support the learning styles and preferences of coworkers or customers, and effectively learn new material presented on the job. This person will also have the ability to successfully support both their own and others’ performance and needs through an adaptive, person- alized, and motivational application of learning strategies designed to improve information processing and attention. In one’s personal life, one can also more successfully encourage his or her children, support personal learning opportunities, engage with educators, and get more deeply involved in volunteering opportunities (e.g., boys and girls clubs and summer learning programs).

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology The field of psychology offers numerous opportunities for career advancement, commu- nity service, and personal development. Here are a few ideas to get you started on a career search when you graduate with a bachelor’s in psychology supported by the field of learning psychology.

Human Resources Specialist There are often numerous areas of expertise within the human resources (HR) department. Some HR specialists train individuals within their organization, manage communications to employees, disseminate benefits information, and assist in the recruiting process for an organization. Having a background in learning psychology prepares people to create success- ful employee trainings based on learning theory. According to the Bureau of Labor Statis- tics (BLS) Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018b), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 7%.

Instructional Designer Using content from experts, some instructional designers create training that supports diverse employee groups. Others work with teachers to create classes that will be engaging and support successful learning. Knowledge of learning psychology prepares those in this career to more purposefully consider the organization and presentation of content to support learner success.

Health Educator/Professional People in this job work with organizations (including schools, government agencies, busi- nesses, etc.) to disseminate knowledge about health issues. For example, they may hold a workshop to teach employees about heart disease and how to prevent it. With an under- standing of learning psychology, those in this profession are equipped to communicate health

Section 3.5Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology

information, which can sometimes be confusing and full of jargon, in a way that makes it easy for non-experts to grasp. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018a), this field is expected to grow by 16% through 2026.

Behavioral Interventionist/Applied Behavior Analyst/ Substance Abuse, Behavioral Disorder, and Mental Health Counselors This professional often works with children, and sometimes adults, to improve their ability to learn in school, develop social skills, and mature inappropriate behaviors. An understanding of learning psychology enhances skills in this career due to the discipline’s focus on the vari- ables that affect people’s behavior and motivation. It also supports one’s ability to encourage and guide the client through appropriate reinforcements. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018h), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 23%.

An Ergonomist/Human Factors Specialist (or Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians) An ergonomist uses design to influence the performance of people in a specific space, most often the workplace. Ergono- mists do this by designing layouts that people will interact with in certain desired ways (think about the way the grocery store entices you to buy certain foods and makes it difficult to find others). This job also refers to people who work with man- ufacturers to design anything that is asso- ciated with improving the wellness of peo- ple. This career field applies the principles of psychology to design products, equip- ment, and contexts (e.g., office chairs/ tables, environmental layouts, and com- puter-adaptive software). Cognitive ergonomists (more specifically aligned to learning psychology) focus on the improvement of technology to improve performance, such as by making software more user friendly or redesigning tasks to even out the cognitive workload. Accord- ing to the BLS Occupational Outlook Hand- book (2018e), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 8%.

Market Research Analyst Knowing what people will buy is a valuable skill for anyone trying to sell something. The psy- chology most associated with this is consumer psychology. However, with an understanding of how humans learn, a market research analyst may be better equipped to study the trends and data that drive product buying. Applying the understanding of how people learn may make more effective marketing campaigns possible. The BLS predicts that this career will grow 23% between 2016 and 2026 (2018c).

George Doyle/Stockbyte/Thinkstock ሁ Grocery stores are arranged with ergonomics

in mind. What other spaces might an ergonomist work on?

Section 3.5Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology

Graduate Degree in Psychology An undergraduate psychology degree can also prepare you for graduate school. Often, in graduate school, psychology is broken down into several specializations. One such area of expertise is learning or educational psychology. With the successful completion of a gradu- ate degree in learning or educational psychology, students can consider the following types of positions. The BLS does not always break down the differing fields of psychologists. For general psychology career growth, see https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social -science/psychologists.htm.

Educational Psychologist Educational psychologists perform educational research that may focus on learning context, types of instruction, teaching methods, assessment techniques, or educational resources. They may also develop instruction or instructional strategies to be applied within educa- tional settings. In addition, they may focus on creating educational resources such as text- books, worksheets, lesson plans, tests, or instructional videos.

Many educational psychologists will specialize in specific age groups, such as children ages 4–6 or learners over 65. Some educational psychologists choose a particular learning prob- lem or disability to focus on, such as dyslexia.

Educational Researcher Educational researchers often work in postsecondary institutions, at research organizations, or for government agencies, researching educational issues and publishing in books or peer- reviewed journals. An educational researcher may specialize in studying and reporting about areas such as motivation, information processing, performance, or curriculum effectiveness, to name a few.

School Psychologist (Elementary, Middle, and High School) School psychologists work at schools with students to improve their ability to learn. This may include one-on-one behavior counseling with a single student or addressing potential learn- ing stumbling blocks that affect a wider, more diverse range of students. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018g), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 13%.

College/University Professor A college professor of learning or educational psychology works with various levels of stu- dents interested in learning more about, or attaining, a degree in that area of expertise. This includes teaching courses and giving lectures, but many professors also do research and publish papers and books, as well as consult for companies seeking their expertise. To teach undergraduate students one must earn a master’s degree, and to instruct graduate students one must have an earned doctorate. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018f ), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 15%.

Career Counselor Career counselors advise people about their career options. These counselors often work in both the secondary and post-secondary educational contexts. They try to help people figure

https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm

Summary

out what career path is right for them. An understanding of learning and cognition can help a career counselor better understand what careers may be more suitable for a client, based on her learning styles/preferences and motivating interests. The BLS estimates that job growth for school and career counselors will be 13% between 2016 and 2026 (2018g).

Summary Learning psychology is an ever-advancing field of study, and there are numerous psychologi- cal theories which propose explanations for the process by which humans learn and methods by which humans can learn more effectively. These theories are applicable in a wide range of personal and professional contexts. From the stimulus-response theory of behaviorism to the internal-state focus of cognitivism, theories advance the understanding of how to sup- port one’s self as well as others in the process of knowledge advancement. Other theoreti- cal models such as constructivism and humanism look at learning from a person-centered, variable-associated perspective and seek to enlighten us to why we do and do not attend to information successfully. Theories, models, and frameworks based in constructivist and humanist ideologies offer plausible explanations for how the information people process may, due to both external and internal variables, be manipulated, misrepresented, and inac- curately stored into LTM.

Understanding how people learn and how we they learn more effectively is an area of psy- chology that is a part of daily life; it is all-encompassing. As you begin making decisions about your career and future, consider the skills that learning about learning has taught you. Whether it is how to consider the diversity of learning preferences when addressing a crowd, how to engage in working memory development as you age, or how to effectively employ aspects of instructional theory, the foundations of this area of psychology will be vital as you market yourself and your skills to the world.

Concept Check 1. The cognitive revolution introduced the notion that

a. behaviorism is outdated and doesn’t apply to modern times. b. how the mind processes knowledge is important. c. cognition cannot occur without a stimulus. d. cognition cannot be measured.

2. Which form of intelligence indicates the ability to solve problems without using stored knowledge? a. general intelligence b. emotional intelligence c. crystallized intelligence d. fluid intelligence

3. What is one of the primary distinctions between constructivism and logical positivism? a. Constructivism emphasizes social constructs and logical positivism emphasizes

mental constructs. b. Constructivism emphasizes mental constructs and logical positivism emphasizes

social constructs.

Summary

c. Constructivism emphasizes subjective experience and logical positivism empha- sizes empirical observation.

d. Constructivism emphasizes empirical observation and logical positivism empha- sizes subjective experience.

4. An understanding of learning psychology can be successfully applied to a. careers in psychology. b. careers outside of psychology. c. one’s private life. d. All of the above. e. Only a and b.

5. A paper company by the name of Filo, Inc. is looking to reorganize their office space to improve productivity and engagement among employees. The head of this initia- tive is looking to contract a professional who can weigh in on the design of the new office space. Which professional with a background in learning psychology would be best for the job? a. Toya, the ergonomist b. Lydia, the behavioral interventionist c. Dylan, the market research analyst d. Shareef, the human resources specialist

Answers

1. b. The answer can be found in Section 3.1. 2. d. The answers can be found in Section 3.2. 3. c. The answer can be found in Section 3.3. 4. d. The answer can be found in Section 3.5. 5. a. The answer can be found in Section 3.5.

Questions for Critical Thinking 1. A recent psychology graduate named Kaylynn is currently seeking a career posi-

tion with the local community college as a marketing director. How can her un- derstanding of learning support this position, and how can she express these acquired skills most clearly in her interview?

2. The retail department store that Nikky, a psychology graduate, works for is chang- ing how they address customer service, and over the next several weeks the store will be requiring all sales personnel to attend training sessions. As a sales manager, Nikky has heard her employees make comments reflecting their frustration with this requirement; they believe they do an adequate job, so why change what they are currently doing. How can Nikky, based on what she knows about the psychol- ogy of learning, encourage the employees to be more open to learning the new procedures?

3. Larry is the senior vice president of a lucrative manufacturing company. He recently hired a young man, Jackson, to work in the warehouse. After observing his work, Larry feels that, with some additional training, Jackson has a lot of potential to ad- vance. But Jackson seems disinterested in advancing any of his skills and knowledge to achieve higher pay or stature in the company. Based on learning and motivation theories, if Jackson is required to attend training geared to advancement, how effective might he be at accommodating the new information?

Summary

Key Terms behaviorism The learning theory based on the premise that observable environmen- tal variables are the basis of behaviors and that learning is demonstrated by behavioral change.

cognitive load The amount of knowl- edge that a person can process in working memory.

cognitivism A theoretical framework that emphasizes the internal processes of thinking, including the retrieval of informa- tion from long-term memory, in explaining behaviors and learning.

cognitive revolution Cognitivist efforts to restore the mind as a consideration in learn- ing that occurred in the mid-1900s.

constructivism A theory that focuses on the way individual context influences learning.

crystallized intelligence (Gc) A person’s stored and retrievable knowledge (long- term memory) about the world, including experiences and learned operations.

cultural myopia The tendency to judge learning experiences based on only one’s own experiences, without full acknowledg- ment of experiences outside one’s own.

emotional intelligence (EI) The ability to understand and manage one’s own emo- tions and the emotions of others.

false memories Memories that are built around an event that never happened, or recollections of real events that include details that are inaccurate.

fluid intelligence (Gf ) The ability to evalu- ate and solve problems using spontaneous learning, reasoning, and analysis rather than stored knowledge.

general intelligence (g) The measure of an individual’s ability to process informa- tion with cognitive complexity.

logical positivism The perspective that answers to questions about the process of learning should only be based upon empiri- cal research

information processing The process by which information enters through sensory memory, flows through working memory, and is then organized and stored in long- term memory to be retrieved by the learner at a later time.

information processing theory This theory claims that information enters the mind, is organized, and then is stored and retrieved by the learner.

intelligence quotient (IQ) A concept that was originally created to determine whether a child had a learning disability and is now used to compare the level of intellect among those in the same age bracket.

long-term memory (LTM) The storage area for information that has been pro- cessed through working memory.

multiple intelligences (MI) Theory sug- gesting that individual learning varies from person to person based on the biopsycho- logical and cultural factors that can affect skill development.

schema Categorical representations within the mind that can help facilitate successful learning.

schema development The process of building new knowledge (in working memory) on previous knowledge (in long- term memory) to create a more effective understanding and retrieval of the new information.

Summary

self-determination theory (SDT) A theory of human motivation that posits that moti- vation is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic sources, including the intrinsic factor of self-regulation.

sociocultural theory (SCT) A theory that emphasizes the importance of society or culture in the learning process.

working memory (WM) A limited capac- ity, short-term cognitive system for process- ing and storing information.

Professional Resources The psychology of learning has many dimensions. The following links should help you remem- ber all that you have learned about this field of psychology as you prepare to market yourself to the professional community.

American Psychological Association The educational psychology division of APA: http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx

Journals Peer-reviewed journals focused on behaviorism and behavioral analysis:

• Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703

• Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711

• Journal of Organizational Behavior: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/ (ISSN)1099-1379

Peer-reviewed cognition-focused journals:

• International Journal of School and Cognitive Psychology: http://www.omicsonline .com/open-access/school-cognitive-psychology.php

• Advances in Cognitive Psychology: http://www.ac-psych.org/en/home • Applied Cognitive Psychology: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/

productCd-ACP.html • Journal of Cognitive Psychology: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/

cognitive-psychology/

Peer-reviewed constructivist-supportive journals (predominantly education focused):

• Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences: http://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/latiss/latiss -overview.xml

• Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages: http://www.blue-ap.org/j/ Journal_of_Social_Sciences,_Literature_and_Languages/

• Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ procedia-social-and-behavioral-sciences/

Peer-reviewed humanistic-supportive journals:

• The Journal of Humanistic Counseling: http://af hc.camp9.org/JHC/

http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-1379

http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/school-cognitive-psychology.php

http://www.ac-psych.org/en/home

http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-ACP.html

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cognitive-psychology/

http://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/latiss/latiss-overview.xml

http://www.blue-ap.org/j/Journal_of_Social_Sciences,_Literature_and_Languages/

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/procedia-social-and-behavioral-sciences/

http://afhc.camp9.org/JHC

Summary

• New Directions for Higher Education: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1536-0741

• Journal of Individual Psychology: https://utpress.utexas.edu/journals/ journal-of-individual-psychology

Learning Theories/Models Cognitivism

• Cognitive Science Society, journal website: http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/ cognitive-science-journal/

Cognitive Load

• “Cognitive Load Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,” a journal arti- cle about cognitive load theory: https://cld.pt/dl/download/c8a79c90-1ce5-44a8 -85fe-f060968e1dd4/biblioteca%20MATEAS/psic.%20cognitiva/Sweller_1994.pdf

Constructivism

• “Vygotsky’s Philosophy: Constructivism and its Criticisms Examined”: http://files .eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf

Emotional Intelligence

• Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Publishing Group.

Experiential Learning

• “Experiential Learning” applied to instructional design: http://www.instructional design.org/theories/experiental-learning.html

Information Processing

• “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information”: http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/

Memory Development

• “Emotion and Autobiographical Memory,” an article about the role of emotions in autobiographical memories: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2852439/

Motivation

• “Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations”: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1536-0741

https://utpress.utexas.edu/journals/journal-of-individual-psychology

http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/cognitive-science-journal/

https://cld.pt/dl/download/c8a79c90-1ce5-44a8-85fe-f060968e1dd4/biblioteca%20MATEAS/psic.%20cognitiva/Sweller_1994.pdf

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf

http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/experiental-learning.html

http://www.musanim.com/miller1956

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852439/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/

Summary

Schema Theory

• “Gender Schema Theory and Its Implications for Child Development: Raising Gen- der-Aschematic Children in a Gender-Schematic Society”: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/3173685?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Fun Facts Did you know that . . .

• Forgotten memories are not “gone” (Loftus, 1993). They are just more difficult to retrieve.

• Just because we think someone has lied to us that may not be the case. False mem- ory development is a normal occurrence in times of stress. Emotion and suggestion play large parts in a human’s recollection of an event.

• Research suggests that playing frightening and violent video games may actually help children have more control over their fears in real life (Olson, 2010).

• Chess increases learning performance habits, including increased attention and con- centration, the use of precise thinking, the use of inductive and deductive reasoning, problem solving practice, and the recognition of complex patterns. (Tudela, 1984). It is also a part of the educational curricula in nearly 30 countries (Linder, 1990).

• Research suggests that those who are the most innovative adult thinkers, were children who were given the opportunity to play and manipulate their environments (Thomas & Thorne, 2009).

• Learning how to rap can increase mathematical concept understanding (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1997).

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173685?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

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